Environments

21 pages, 621 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Arsenic in Soil: A Critical and Scoping Review of Exposure Pathways and Health Impacts

by Catherine Irwin, Sajni Gudka, Sofie De Meyer, Martine Dennekamp, Pacian Netherway, Maryam Moslehi, Timothy Chaston, Antti Mikkonen, Jen Martin, Mark Patrick Taylor and Suzanne Mavoa

Environments 2025, 12(5), 161; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050161 - 14 May 2025

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4970

Abstract

Arsenic (As) in soil, such as mining waste, is a concern for communities with legacy contamination. While the chronic health effects of As exposure through drinking water are well documented, the association between As in soil and population-wide health impacts is [...] Read more.

Arsenic (As) in soil, such as mining waste, is a concern for communities with legacy contamination. While the chronic health effects of As exposure through drinking water are well documented, the association between As in soil and population-wide health impacts is complex, involving factors like soil accessibility, soil properties, and exposure modes. This review summarizes evidence of associations between As in soil and human health, as well as biomarker and bioaccessibility evidence of exposure pathways. Fourteen studies were included in the final analysis. Reviewed studies reported associations between As in soil and birth outcomes, neurological effects, DNA damage, and cancer. Some of these health outcomes are not known to be linked to As in drinking water and were reported over a range of soil concentrations, indicating inconsistencies. Higher soil As concentrations are associated with higher As in human biospecimens, suggesting direct and indirect soil ingestion as primary exposure pathways. The subpopulations more likely to be exposed include younger children and those involved in soil-based activities. Future research should focus on standardized epidemiological studies, longitudinal studies, soil exposure and mitigating factors, combined exposure biomarker studies, the behavior of the different As species, soil dose related to bioavailability/bioaccessibility, and effects with other elements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members’ Collection Series: Soil Contamination and Remediation)

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33 pages, 2298 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Recent Advances in Remote Sensing and Artificial Intelligence for River Water Quality Forecasting: A Review

by Daiwei Pan, Ying Deng, Simon X. Yang and Bahram Gharabaghi

Environments 2025, 12(5), 158; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050158 - 10 May 2025

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 10739

Abstract

Rapid population growth and climate change have created challenges for managing water quality. Protecting water sources and devising practical solutions are essential for restoring impaired inland rivers. Traditional water quality monitoring and forecasting methods rely on labor-intensive sampling and analysis, which are often [...] Read more.

Rapid population growth and climate change have created challenges for managing water quality. Protecting water sources and devising practical solutions are essential for restoring impaired inland rivers. Traditional water quality monitoring and forecasting methods rely on labor-intensive sampling and analysis, which are often costly. In recent years, real-time monitoring, remote sensing, and machine learning have significantly improved the accuracy of water quality forecasting. This paper categorizes machine learning approaches into traditional, deep learning, and hybrid models, evaluating their performance in forecasting water quality parameters. In recent years, the long short-term memory (LSTMs), gated recurrent units (GRUs) and LSTM- and GRU-based hybrid models have been widely used in forecasting inland river water quality. Combining remote sensing with a real-time water quality monitoring network has enhanced data collection efficiency by capturing spatial variability within the river network, complementing the high temporal resolution of in situ measurements, and improving the overall robustness of predictive deep learning models. Additionally, leveraging weather prediction models can further enhance the accuracy of water quality forecasting and better decision-making for water resource management. Full article

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22 pages, 1837 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Analytical Methods for In-Depth Assessment of Recycled Plastics: A Review

by Joseph Patrick Dzoh Fonkou, Giovanni Beggio, Gabriella Salviulo and Maria Cristina Lavagnolo

Environments 2025, 12(5), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050154 - 7 May 2025

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 7454

Abstract

Assessing the detailed characteristics of recycled plastics is essential for evaluating their quality and suitability for high-value applications compared to virgin polymers. This review provides a comprehensive overview of advanced analytical techniques used for characterizing the chemical, structural, morphological, and physical properties of [...] Read more.

Assessing the detailed characteristics of recycled plastics is essential for evaluating their quality and suitability for high-value applications compared to virgin polymers. This review provides a comprehensive overview of advanced analytical techniques used for characterizing the chemical, structural, morphological, and physical properties of recycled polymeric materials. The techniques examined include Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Micro-Raman spectroscopy, X-ray Fluorescence (XRF), Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) techniques, X-ray Powder Diffraction (XRPD), Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). These methods are critically assessed for their effectiveness in detecting polymer degradation, surface and structural alterations, and the presence of contaminants—factors frequently introduced during mechanical recycling processes. For each technique, this review outlines the working principles, sample preparation protocols, and illustrative case studies while discussing their advantages, limitations, and operational challenges. By synthesizing current knowledge and methodological advancements, this review aims to support the development of robust and standardized quality assessment protocols. Enhancing the reliability and precision of recycled plastic characterization will improve their acceptance as high-quality secondary raw materials, thereby facilitating their upcycling and contributing to the broader goals of the circular economy. Full article

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20 pages, 3059 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Climatic Changes Shift Macroalgal Assemblages from Cold- to Warm-Adapted Species: The Venice Lagoon as a Study Case

by Adriano Sfriso, Yari Tomio and Andrea Augusto Sfriso

Environments 2025, 12(5), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050149 - 2 May 2025

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2161

Abstract

Temperature increase is one of the main effects of climate change occurring worldwide, with drastic impacts on both terrestrial and aquatic biota. Changes in the dominant macroalgal taxa in the Venice Lagoon have been analyzed in relation to the rise in air temperature [...] Read more.

Temperature increase is one of the main effects of climate change occurring worldwide, with drastic impacts on both terrestrial and aquatic biota. Changes in the dominant macroalgal taxa in the Venice Lagoon have been analyzed in relation to the rise in air temperature recorded since 1973, highlighting the significant decline in cold-adapted species, which have been replaced by taxa more tolerant of higher temperatures. Cold-adapted species such as the native Fucus virsoides, Punctaria latifolia, Scytosiphon lomentaria, and many other Phaeophyceae are in decline, whereas thermophilic species such as the non-indigenous species (NIS) Gracilaria vermiculophylla, Agardhiella subulata, Solieria filiformis, Hypnea cervicornis, Caulacanthus okamurae, and many others have replaced the species that once dominated the lagoon. These changes have been associated with an average air temperature increase of approximately 2.5 °C. The highest increase has mostly been recorded for average minimum temperatures (+2.8 °C), compared to average maximum temperatures (+2.0 °C). As a result, Phaeophyceae have declined, while Rhodophyceae, especially recent NIS introductions, have colonized the lagoon bottoms. Changes in Chlorophyceae, on the other hand, appear to be more linked to the reduction of the lagoon’s trophic conditions, although the currently dominant species is Ulva australis, a NIS that has replaced the native Ulva rigida almost everywhere. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring and Assessment of Environmental Quality in Coastal Ecosystems, 4th Edition)

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14 pages, 464 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Development and Reliability Testing of a Tool to Assess Women’s Perceptions and Avoidance of Endocrine Disruptors in Personal and Household Products

by Adrianna Trifunovski, Nooshin Khobzi Rotondi, Jennifer Abbass-Dick, Rola Al Ghali and Caroline Barakat

Environments 2025, 12(5), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12050138 - 25 Apr 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3593

Abstract

Personal care and household products (PCHPs) often contain endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) that pose health risks, especially for women. Women, frequent users of PCHPs, are exposed to approximately 168 chemicals daily. However, there are gaps in understanding women’s knowledge, risk perceptions, and beliefs regarding [...] Read more.

Personal care and household products (PCHPs) often contain endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) that pose health risks, especially for women. Women, frequent users of PCHPs, are exposed to approximately 168 chemicals daily. However, there are gaps in understanding women’s knowledge, risk perceptions, and beliefs regarding these chemicals, as well as how these constructs influence their avoidance behavior. Existing questionnaires on EDCs in PCHPs lack reliability and comprehensiveness. Guided by the Health Belief Model, this study developed a self-administered questionnaire targeting four key constructs: knowledge, health risk perceptions, beliefs, and avoidance behaviors related to six EDCs commonly found in PCHPs (lead, parabens, Bisphenol A, phthalates, triclosan, and perchloroethylene). The questionnaire was distributed to 200 women at in-person events and online. The internal consistency of the constructs was tested using Cronbach’s alpha. The questionnaire included six items assessing knowledge, seven items on risk perceptions, five items on beliefs, and six items on avoidance behavior for each endocrine-disrupting chemical. Cronbach’s alpha values indicated strong reliability across all constructs. This newly developed questionnaire offers a reliable tool for assessing women’s knowledge, risk perceptions, beliefs, and behaviors toward EDCs in PCHPs. These findings could inform public health research and intervention strategies aimed at reducing women’s exposure to EDCs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Pollution Risk Assessment)

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25 pages, 1010 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Solutions for Modelling the Marine Oil Spill Drift

by Catalin Popa, Dinu Atodiresei, Alecu Toma, Vasile Dobref and Jenel Vatamanu

Environments 2025, 12(4), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12040132 - 21 Apr 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4020

Abstract

Oil spills represent a critical environmental hazard with far-reaching ecological and economic consequences, necessitating the development of sophisticated modelling approaches to predict, monitor, and mitigate their impacts. This study presents a computationally efficient and physically grounded modelling framework for simulating oil spill drift [...] Read more.

Oil spills represent a critical environmental hazard with far-reaching ecological and economic consequences, necessitating the development of sophisticated modelling approaches to predict, monitor, and mitigate their impacts. This study presents a computationally efficient and physically grounded modelling framework for simulating oil spill drift in marine environments, developed using Python coding. The proposed model integrates core physical processes—advection, diffusion, and degradation—within a simplified partial differential equation system, employing an integrator for numerical simulation. Building on recent advances in marine pollution modelling, the study incorporates real-time oceanographic data, satellite-based remote sensing, and subsurface dispersion dynamics into an enriched version of the simulation. The research is structured in two phases: (1) the development of a minimalist Python model to validate fundamental oil transport behaviours, and (2) the implementation of a comprehensive, multi-layered simulation that includes NOAA ocean currents, 3D vertical mixing, and support for inland and chemical spill modelling. The results confirm the model’s ability to reproduce realistic oil spill trajectories, diffusion patterns, and biodegradation effects under variable environmental conditions. The proposed framework demonstrates strong potential for real-time decision support in oil spill response, coastal protection, and environmental policy-making. This paperwork contributes to the field by bridging theoretical modelling with practical response needs, offering a scalable and adaptable tool for marine pollution forecasting. Future extensions may incorporate deep learning algorithms and high-resolution sensor data to further enhance predictive accuracy and operational readiness. Full article

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19 pages, 3613 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Ecofriendly Degradation of PET via Neutral Hydrolysis: Degradation Mechanism and Green Chemistry Metrics

by Adhithiya Venkatachalapati Thulasiraman, Arun Krishna Vuppaladadiyam, Ibrahim Gbolahan Hakeem, Kamrun Nahar, Manoj Kumar Jena and Kalpit Shah

Environments 2025, 12(4), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12040127 - 18 Apr 2025

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 7311

Abstract

Waste polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles represent 12% of global plastic waste; however, only 9% are recycled. Hydrothermal processing presents the opportunity to upcycle waste PET into its monomers, particularly, terephthalic acid (TPA). In this study, post-consumer PET sparkling water bottles were neutrally hydrolysed [...] Read more.

Waste polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles represent 12% of global plastic waste; however, only 9% are recycled. Hydrothermal processing presents the opportunity to upcycle waste PET into its monomers, particularly, terephthalic acid (TPA). In this study, post-consumer PET sparkling water bottles were neutrally hydrolysed via a hydrothermal process operating within a temperature range of 220–270 °C, a residence time of 30–90 min, and autogenous pressure of 25–90 bar. Under these conditions, the TPA yield varied between 7.34 and 81.05%, and the maximum TPA yield was obtained at 250 °C, 90 min, and 40 bar. The process temperature had a more profound impact on the PET conversion and TPA yield than the residence time. The values of the environmental factor (EF) were found to be 0.017–0.106, which were comparable to those of bulk chemicals (EF < 1). With the chosen operating conditions, the environmental energy impact (EEI) of TPA production was estimated to be 5.29 × 10⁴ °C min. The findings demonstrate that neutral hydrolysis is a feasible approach for converting PET polymers into monomers under mild environmental conditions. In addition, a GCMS analysis of the aqueous-phase product revealed a notable increase in the secondary degradation products of TPA, such as benzoic acid, rising from 66.4% to 75.7% as the process temperature increased from 220 °C to 270 °C. The degradation mechanisms of PET were found to be decarboxylation, dehydration, and oxidation. The dominant mechanism was found to be a decarboxylation reaction. Full article

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16 pages, 20746 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Pretreatment Methods for Recovering Active Cathode Material from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Federica Barontini, Flavio Francalanci, Eleonora Stefanelli and Monica Puccini

Environments 2025, 12(4), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12040119 - 12 Apr 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3922

Abstract

The development of environmentally friendly pretreatment processes for spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is crucial for optimizing direct recycling methods. This study explores alternative approaches for recovering active cathode materials from end-of-life LIBs, focusing on environmentally safer options compared to the usually employed toxic [...] Read more.

The development of environmentally friendly pretreatment processes for spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is crucial for optimizing direct recycling methods. This study explores alternative approaches for recovering active cathode materials from end-of-life LIBs, focusing on environmentally safer options compared to the usually employed toxic solvent N-methyl-pyrrolidone (NMP), using disassembled batteries as test subjects. Various pretreatment methods, including thermal treatment, selective aluminum foil dissolution with a NaOH solution, and the use of eco-friendly solvents such as triethyl phosphate (TEP), are examined on the cathode sheets. The results show that thermal pretreatment combined with TEP provides the most effective approach, achieving a recovery efficiency of 95% while maintaining the morphology and purity of the recovered materials, making them suitable for direct recycling. These methods are further tested on complete battery cells, simulating industrial-scale operations. The TEP treatment proves particularly promising, ensuring high recovery efficiency and preserving the structural integrity of the materials, with a mean particle diameter of approximately 8 µm. Additionally, when applied to cycled batteries, this pretreatment successfully recovers active materials without contamination. This study provides valuable insights into various pretreatment strategies, contributing to the development of a greener, more efficient direct recycling pretreatment process for spent LIBs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable Recycling and Reuse of Industrial By-Products or Waste from Geo-Resource Exploitation)

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25 pages, 3676 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Fishponds Are Hotspots of Algal Biodiversity—Organic Carp Farming Reveals Unexpected High Taxa Richness

by Michael Schagerl, Chun-Chieh Yen, Christian Bauer, Luka Gaspar and Johann Waringer

Environments 2025, 12(3), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12030092 - 15 Mar 2025

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3458

Abstract

Fishponds are regarded as hypertrophic systems accompanied by low biodiversity. We focused on the phytoplankton diversity of 15 fishponds located in Austria. Of the 15 fishponds, 12 waterbodies are aquaculture ponds stocked with common carp, which converted to organic farming some years ago [...] Read more.

Fishponds are regarded as hypertrophic systems accompanied by low biodiversity. We focused on the phytoplankton diversity of 15 fishponds located in Austria. Of the 15 fishponds, 12 waterbodies are aquaculture ponds stocked with common carp, which converted to organic farming some years ago with grain as supplementary feed, and 3 ponds are used for recreational fishing. The trophic state index increased from 59 to 71 in spring to 80 to 93 in autumn and classified the ponds as mid-eutrophic to hypertrophic. The taxa number was surprisingly high (taxa richness up to 100 taxa per pond). The phytoplankton resource use efficiency was in the upper range of eutrophicated waters and did not show seasonal differences (median Chlorophyll-a/total phosphorus = 1.94, Chlorophyll-a/total nitrogen = 0.12). Linking environmental data with the algal community resulted in a distinct temporal community pattern with a significant seasonal shift from the cooler season dominated by Ochrophyta taxa to green algae as the most abundant group in summer and autumn. Our findings challenge general assumptions regarding low phytoplankton diversity with long-lasting Cyanobacteria blooms and conform to the algal dynamics described in the plankton ecology group (PEG) model for temperate shallow lakes. These man-made systems are an ecological asset, highly connected to terrestrial habitats in their vicinity and significantly contributing to the ecological health and long-term sustainability of the region. Full article

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27 pages, 2139 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Nanobiopesticides: Sustainability Aspects and Safety Concerns

by Giuliana Vinci, Marco Savastano, Donatella Restuccia and Marco Ruggeri

Environments 2025, 12(3), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12030074 - 1 Mar 2025

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4689

Abstract

The use of chemical pesticides has significantly improved crop yields and global food security but poses risks to environment and human health. To address this, nanobiopesticides, combining nanomaterials and biopesticide, have emerged as a potential alternative. Therefore, this article evaluates their sustainability and [...] Read more.

The use of chemical pesticides has significantly improved crop yields and global food security but poses risks to environment and human health. To address this, nanobiopesticides, combining nanomaterials and biopesticide, have emerged as a potential alternative. Therefore, this article evaluates their sustainability and safety through a literature review using Scopus. The results indicate that nanobiopesticides offer advantages over conventional pesticides, including greater precision, controlled release, and reduced dosage requirements. An illustrative Life Cycle Assessment conducted in this study confirmed that they potentially offer more sustainability than commercial pesticides, showing reductions in environmental impacts from −6% to −99%. However, several gaps remain related to the effect of nanoparticles on non-target organisms and biodiversity, bioaccumulation, and environmental persistence in ecosystems, and their ecotoxicological safety. Additionally, regulatory frameworks in major agricultural markets are complex and fragmented, potentially hindering large-scale adoption. Currently, nanobiopesticides are commercially available in countries such as the U.S., India, and Brazil, primarily for pest control in crops like rice, maize, and vegetables. Their market presence is growing, yet widespread implementation will depend on clearer regulations and further research on long-term environmental impacts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticide Contamination to Non-target Organisms, the Environment, and Agroecosystems)

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13 pages, 524 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

E-Cigarette and Environment

by Ancuta-Alina Constantin and Florin-Dumitru Mihălțan

Environments 2025, 12(3), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12030072 - 27 Feb 2025

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 13731

Abstract

Environmental exposure to e-cigarettes is a significant yet often overlooked issue in the medical field. In this review, we examine various aspects of exposure mechanisms, including the risks of secondhand and thirdhand vaping. Our findings highlight numerous environmental concerns related to the fabrication, [...] Read more.

Environmental exposure to e-cigarettes is a significant yet often overlooked issue in the medical field. In this review, we examine various aspects of exposure mechanisms, including the risks of secondhand and thirdhand vaping. Our findings highlight numerous environmental concerns related to the fabrication, consumption, and waste management of e-cigarettes. Additionally, we address the pressing issue of plastic pollution linked to vaping products. We also explore methods to protect passive vapers and propose strategies aimed at mitigating the environmental impact of e-cigarettes as well as safeguarding innocent bystanders. Full article

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22 pages, 1127 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Evaluating GHG Emissions and Renewable Energy Use in the Italian Energy Sector: Monitoring, Reporting, and Objectives

by Stefano Castelluccio, Silvia Fiore and Claudio Comoglio

Environments 2025, 12(2), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12020055 - 6 Feb 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3162

Abstract

This study investigates the greenhouse gas (GHG) and renewable energy use reporting practices among thermal power plants (TPPs), waste incinerators (WIs), and hydropower plants (HPPs) in Italy, as reflected in their EMAS environmental statements. The analysis focuses on GHG emissions (Scope 1, 2, [...] Read more.

This study investigates the greenhouse gas (GHG) and renewable energy use reporting practices among thermal power plants (TPPs), waste incinerators (WIs), and hydropower plants (HPPs) in Italy, as reflected in their EMAS environmental statements. The analysis focuses on GHG emissions (Scope 1, 2, and 3) and renewable energy utilization reporting, and on the objectives set by the companies for reducing emissions and fossil fuels use. TPPs and WIs reported positive Scope 1 emissions extensively but reporting on Scope 2 and Scope 3 resulted inconsistent for all facilities. Negative emissions reporting was generally lacking, except for HPPs. Renewable energy use reporting was also limited, especially in TPPs and WIs, despite some facilities producing energy from renewable sources. The study also evaluated the objectives set by the companies on GHG reduction and renewable energy use increase, finding that GHG reduction was prioritized over renewable energy use. However, both were often a secondary goal integrated into planned operational improvements. The findings highlight that, to ensure transparency of sustainability data and the possibility of performances benchmarking in the energy production sector, there is the need for defining stronger reporting guidelines on GHG emissions, especially regarding Scope 3 emissions, and to prioritize increasing the share of renewable energy among strategic objectives. Future research should investigate factors affecting reporting behavior and the barriers to renewable energy adoption in fossil fuel-reliant sectors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction and Green Energy Utilization)

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13 pages, 1362 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Distribution and Seasonality of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in the Vertical Water Column of a Stratified Eutrophic Freshwater Lake

by Patrick R. Gorski

Environments 2025, 12(2), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12020048 - 4 Feb 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3204

Abstract

The vertical distribution and potential variability of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the water column of lacustrine systems is important to know for sampling and monitoring purposes, but could also relate to details of their fate, transport, and distribution. In this study, [...] Read more.

The vertical distribution and potential variability of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the water column of lacustrine systems is important to know for sampling and monitoring purposes, but could also relate to details of their fate, transport, and distribution. In this study, the water column of a eutrophic freshwater lake (Lake Monona, Madison, WI, USA) was sampled vertically for PFAS during summer stratification at several depths (surface microlayer to 1 m from the bottom) and then monitored at four dates and three depths the following year to assess seasonality. PFAS concentration did not exhibit vertical stratification or large variability in the water column. However, seasonal variation in PFAS concentration was detected, as well as an increase in PFAS concentration related to drought conditions. This study suggests that a surface water grab sample may be a sufficient representative of the water column for the basic monitoring of PFAS. But a single sample during the year may not provide a complete understanding of the lake, and multiple samples should be taken to capture and understand important seasonal events. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Occurrence, Behavior, Fate, Risk Assessment, and Treatment of per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances)

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27 pages, 2018 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Advances in Graphene-Based Materials for Metal Ion Sensing and Wastewater Treatment: A Review

by Akram Khalajiolyaie and Cuiying Jian

Environments 2025, 12(2), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12020043 - 2 Feb 2025

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 6799

Abstract

Graphene-based materials, including graphene oxide (GO) and functionalized derivatives, have demonstrated exceptional potential in addressing environmental challenges related to heavy metal detection and wastewater treatment. This review presents the latest advancements in graphene-based electrochemical and fluorescence sensors, emphasizing their superior sensitivity and selectivity [...] Read more.

Graphene-based materials, including graphene oxide (GO) and functionalized derivatives, have demonstrated exceptional potential in addressing environmental challenges related to heavy metal detection and wastewater treatment. This review presents the latest advancements in graphene-based electrochemical and fluorescence sensors, emphasizing their superior sensitivity and selectivity in detecting metal ions, such as Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺, and Hg²⁺, even in complex matrices. The key focus of this review is on the use of molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to understand and predict ion transport through graphene membranes, offering insights into their mechanisms and efficiency in removing contaminants. Particularly, this article reviews the effects of external conditions, pore radius, functionalization, and multilayers on water purification to provide comprehensive insights into filtration membrane design. Functionalized graphene membranes exhibit enhanced ion rejection through tailored electrostatic interactions and size exclusion effects, achieving up to 100% rejection rates for selected heavy metals. Multilayered and hybrid graphene composites further improve filtration performance and structural stability, enabling sustainable, large-scale water purification. However, challenges related to fabrication scalability, environmental impact, and cost remain. This review also highlights the importance of computational approaches and innovative material designs in overcoming these barriers, paving the way for future breakthroughs in graphene-based filtration technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring of Contaminated Water and Soil)

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46 pages, 1183 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Chemicals in European Residences—Part II: A Review of Emissions, Concentrations, and Health Effects of Semi-Volatile Organic Compounds (SVOCs)

by Charlotte Landeg-Cox, Alice Middleton, Christos Halios, Tim Marczylo and Sani Dimitroulopoulou

Environments 2025, 12(2), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12020040 - 30 Jan 2025

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5864

Abstract

This comprehensive review reports on concentrations, sources, emissions, and potential health effects from Semi-Volatile Organic Compounds (SVOCs) identified in the internal home environment in European residences. A total of 84 studies were identified, and concentrations were collated for inhalation exposure from dust, air [...] Read more.

This comprehensive review reports on concentrations, sources, emissions, and potential health effects from Semi-Volatile Organic Compounds (SVOCs) identified in the internal home environment in European residences. A total of 84 studies were identified, and concentrations were collated for inhalation exposure from dust, air and aerosol. A total of 298 individual SVOCs were identified and 67 compounds belonging to eight chemical classes: phthalates, flame retardants, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS), biocides, bisphenols and musks were prioritised. Phthalates are the most abundant SVOCs with DEHP being the most abundant in both the dust and aerosol phases (WAGMs 426.4 μg g⁻¹ and 52.2 ng m⁻³, respectively) followed by DBP for dust (WAGMs are 95.9 μg g⁻¹). In the air, the most abundant SVOCs are DiBP (284.1 ng m⁻³), DBP (179.5 ng m⁻³), DEHP (106.2 ng m⁻³) and DMP (27.79 ng m⁻³). Chemicals from all SVOC categories are emitted from building and construction materials, furnishings and consumer products, especially phthalates. Both legacy chemicals and their alternatives were detected. Complexities of reporting on SVOCs included differing sampling methodologies, multiple standards in their definition, lack of industry data, and toxicological data focused primarily on ingestion not inhalation exposures. Further research is recommended to develop the evidence base for potential health effects including via inhalation, reporting of emission rates and undertaking future monitoring studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution in Urban and Industrial Areas III)

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30 pages, 2183 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Biobased Strategies for E-Waste Metal Recovery: A Critical Overview of Recent Advances

by Diogo A. Ferreira-Filipe, Armando C. Duarte, Andrew S. Hursthouse, Teresa Rocha-Santos and Ana L. Patrício Silva

Environments 2025, 12(1), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12010026 - 16 Jan 2025

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 7385

Abstract

The increasing e-waste volumes represent a great challenge in the current waste management landscape, primarily due to the massive production and turnover of electronic devices and the complexity of their components and constituents. Traditional strategies for e-waste treatment focus on metal recovery through [...] Read more.

The increasing e-waste volumes represent a great challenge in the current waste management landscape, primarily due to the massive production and turnover of electronic devices and the complexity of their components and constituents. Traditional strategies for e-waste treatment focus on metal recovery through costly, energetically intensive, and environmentally hazardous processes, such as pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical approaches, often neglecting other e-waste constituents. As efforts are directed towards creating a more sustainable and circular economic model, biobased alternative approaches to these traditional techniques have been increasingly investigated. This critical review focuses on recent advances towards sustainable e-waste treatment, exclusively considering studies using e-waste sources. It addresses, from a critical perspective, approaches using inactive biomass, live biomass, and biogenic compounds, showcasing the diversity of strategies and discussing reaction parameters, advantages and disadvantages, challenges, and potential for valorization of generated by-products. While ongoing research focuses on optimizing operational times and metal recovery efficiencies, bioprocessing approaches still offer significant potential for metal recovery from e-waste. These approaches include lower environmental impact by reducing energy consumption and effluent treatments and the ability to recover metals from complex e-waste streams, paving the way for a more circular economy in the electronics industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deployment of Green Technologies for Sustainable Environment III)

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10 pages, 455 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Energy Use and Environmental Impact of Three Lithium-Ion Battery Factories with a Total Annual Capacity of 100 GWh

by Ákos Kuki, Csilla Lakatos, Lajos Nagy, Tibor Nagy and Sándor Kéki

Environments 2025, 12(1), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12010024 - 14 Jan 2025

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 18394

Abstract

The rapid evolution of Li-ion battery technologies and manufacturing processes demands a continual update of environmental impact data. The general objective of this paper is to publish up-to-date primary data on battery manufacturing, which is of great importance to the scientific community and [...] Read more.

The rapid evolution of Li-ion battery technologies and manufacturing processes demands a continual update of environmental impact data. The general objective of this paper is to publish up-to-date primary data on battery manufacturing, which is of great importance to the scientific community and decision-makers. The environmental impacts have been calculated and estimated based on publicly available data disclosed under Hungarian government regulations and official decrees. The gate-to-gate energy use, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, water consumption, and N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) consumption are estimated for three battery factories in Hungary, with a total annual capacity of approximately 100 GWh. The factories use around 30–35 kWh energy per kWh of battery capacity and the associated GHG emissions are around 10 kgCO₂eq per kWh of cell production. The water consumption varies considerably among factories, with one plant using 28 L per kWh and the other two using 56 and 67 L per kWh. The specific consumption of NMP was calculated for two factories, resulting in close values of 0.51–0.56 kg per kWh of cell production. As a new approach, we distinguish between global and local GHG emissions related to battery production. The main component of the latter is carbon dioxide from the combustion of natural gas, but the local transport related to the battery factories is also a source of emissions. Our estimations include not only the consumptions required directly for the manufacturing technology, but also those for social purposes (e.g., heating offices), giving a more complete picture of the factory’s environmental impact. We believe that up-to-date primary data are crucial for ensuring transparency and holds significant value for both the scientific community and decision-makers. Full article

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21 pages, 929 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Genotoxicity of Microplastics on Living Organisms: Effects on Chromosomes, DNA and Gene Expression

by Kuok Ho Daniel Tang

Environments 2025, 12(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12010010 - 3 Jan 2025

Cited by 52 | Viewed by 15299

Abstract

Microplastic exposure has become unavoidable, leading to their presence in living organisms. One area of particular concern is the genotoxicity of microplastics, which has implications for reproductive health and cancer development. This review aims to highlight the genotoxic effects of microplastics on different [...] Read more.

Microplastic exposure has become unavoidable, leading to their presence in living organisms. One area of particular concern is the genotoxicity of microplastics, which has implications for reproductive health and cancer development. This review aims to highlight the genotoxic effects of microplastics on different organisms, focusing on their impacts on chromosomes, DNA, and gene expression. More than 85 papers, primarily published in the last five years, have been reviewed. This review indicates that microplastics can cause clastogenesis and aneugenesis at the chromosome level. Clastogenesis results in chromosome damage, while aneugenesis leads to failures in chromosome segregation without causing direct damage. Additionally, microplastics can fracture and damage DNA. These effects arise from (1) the direct genotoxicity of microplastics through interactions with chromosomes, DNA, and associated proteins; and (2) their indirect genotoxicity due to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by oxidative stress induced by microplastics. Microplastics can trigger the activation of genes related to oxidative stress and the inflammatory response, leading to increased ROS production. Furthermore, they may alter gene expression in other biological processes. The genotoxicity linked to microplastics can stem from the particles themselves and their associated chemicals, and it appears to be both size- and dose-dependent. Full article

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22 pages, 11685 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Monitoring Aquatic Debris in a Water Environment Using a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV): A Comparative Study with Implications of Algal Detection in Lake Como (Northern Italy)

by Jassica Lawrence, Nicola Castelnuovo and Roberta Bettinetti

Environments 2025, 12(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12010003 - 27 Dec 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4074

Abstract

This study investigates underwater debris in a freshwater lake using remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) during two distinct survey periods: 2019 and 2024. The primary objective was to count and document visible debris (metal and plastic) on the lakebed based on ROV video recordings. [...] Read more.

This study investigates underwater debris in a freshwater lake using remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) during two distinct survey periods: 2019 and 2024. The primary objective was to count and document visible debris (metal and plastic) on the lakebed based on ROV video recordings. A total of 356 debris items were observed in 2019, while only 39 items were recorded in 2024. The notable decrease in debris visibility in 2024 is likely attributed to dense algal growth during the survey months, which hindered the visual identification of objects on the lakebed. The study highlights the challenges of monitoring underwater debris in freshwater systems, particularly during periods of high algal activity, which can significantly impact visibility and detection efforts. While ROVs have proven effective in identifying submerged debris in clear water, this research underscores their limitations under reduced visibility conditions caused by algal blooms, turbidity diminishing the video quality. The results provide valuable insights into the temporal variation in debris visibility and contribute to ongoing efforts to improve freshwater debris monitoring techniques. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environments: 10 Years of Science Together)

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24 pages, 1325 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

From Cradle to Grave: Microplastics—A Dangerous Legacy for Future Generations

by Tamara Lang, Filip Jelić and Christian Wechselberger

Environments 2024, 11(12), 263; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11120263 - 22 Nov 2024

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5132

Abstract

Microplastics have become a ubiquitous pollutant that permeates every aspect of our environment—from the oceans to the soil to the elementary foundations of human life. New findings demonstrate that microplastic particles not only pose a latent threat to adult populations, but also play [...] Read more.

Microplastics have become a ubiquitous pollutant that permeates every aspect of our environment—from the oceans to the soil to the elementary foundations of human life. New findings demonstrate that microplastic particles not only pose a latent threat to adult populations, but also play a serious role even before birth during the fetal stages of human development. Exposure to microplastics during the early childhood stages is another source of risk that is almost impossible to prevent. This comprehensive review examines the multiple aspects associated with microplastics during early human development, detailing the mechanisms by which these particles enter the adult body, their bioaccumulation in tissues throughout life and the inevitable re-entry of these particles into different ecosystems after death. Full article

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25 pages, 428 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Can Phthalates Be Considered as Microplastic Tracers in the Mediterranean Marine Environment?

by Giuseppa Di Bella, Ambrogina Albergamo, Federica Litrenta, Vincenzo Lo Turco and Angela Giorgia Potortì

Environments 2024, 11(12), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11120267 - 22 Nov 2024

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3729

Abstract

Plastics are a major environmental concern, not only because of their uncontrolled dispersion in the environment, but also because of their release of chemical additives, such as phthalates (PAEs), particularly in water bodies. Key land–water interfaces, such as coastal zones, has always represented [...] Read more.

Plastics are a major environmental concern, not only because of their uncontrolled dispersion in the environment, but also because of their release of chemical additives, such as phthalates (PAEs), particularly in water bodies. Key land–water interfaces, such as coastal zones, has always represented a complex and dynamic nexus for plastic pollution, as they are sites often densely populated, with major pollution sources. The Mediterranean basin, for example, is known to be a global hotspot of plastic waste, with a microplastic concentration approximately four times greater than the North Pacific Ocean. However, differently from the overviewed issue of plastic litter and microplastics, the occurrence, distribution, and impact of PAEs on the abiotic and biotic compartment of marine ecosystems of the Mediterranean area have still not been reviewed. Hence, this review provides an introductory section on the plastic pollution issue and its close relationship, not only with microplastics, but also with the leaching of toxic PAEs. To follow, the most relevant analytical approaches for reliably assessing PAEs in abiotic and biotic marine matrices are discussed. The analysis of the main anthropogenic sources of PAEs, their occurrence and spatiotemporal trends in the Mediterranean Sea is conducted. Finally, the potential correlation between PAE pollution and the abundance of microplastics are critically examined to evaluate their effectiveness as tracers of microplastic pollution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plastics Pollution in Aquatic Environments, 2nd Edition)

31 pages, 1849 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Reviewing Digestate Thermal Valorization: Focusing on the Energy Demand and the Treatment of Process Water

by Ebtihal Abdelfatah-Aldayyat, Silvia González-Rojo and Xiomar Gómez

Environments 2024, 11(11), 239; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11110239 - 29 Oct 2024

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4821

Abstract

Anaerobic digestion is a feasible solution for the treatment of organic wastes. The process can reduce the amount of biowaste by stabilizing the organic material and producing biogas susceptible to energetic valorization. However, the digestate needs further valorization when land application is considered [...] Read more.

Anaerobic digestion is a feasible solution for the treatment of organic wastes. The process can reduce the amount of biowaste by stabilizing the organic material and producing biogas susceptible to energetic valorization. However, the digestate needs further valorization when land application is considered unfeasible. Thermal treatments, such as gasification, pyrolysis, and hydrothermal carbonization, are alternatives capable of transforming this material into valuable syngas, obtaining, in many cases, a carbonized stream known as biochar. The feasibility of the process depends on the energy demand for the drying stage and the treatments available for removing contaminants from the syngas, attaining high-quality products, and treating the process-derived water. In the present manuscript, these critical aspects were reviewed considering the characteristics of digestates based on their origin, the modifications of this material during anaerobic digestion, and the way digestate structure affects the final thermal valorization outcome. Emphasis was placed on the energy demand of the global approach and byproduct treatments. Full article

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14 pages, 5639 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Evaluating Indoor Air Quality in Residential Environments: A Study of PM_2.5 and CO₂ Dynamics Using Low-Cost Sensors

by Kabir Bahadur Shah, Dylan Kim, Sai Deepak Pinakana, Mkhitar Hobosyan, Armando Montes and Amit U. Raysoni

Environments 2024, 11(11), 237; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11110237 - 28 Oct 2024

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 9390

Abstract

Indoor air quality (IAQ) poses a significant public health concern, and exposures to high levels of fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) could have detrimental health impacts. This study focused on assessing the indoor air pollutants in [...] Read more.

Indoor air quality (IAQ) poses a significant public health concern, and exposures to high levels of fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) could have detrimental health impacts. This study focused on assessing the indoor air pollutants in a residential house located in the town of Mission, Hidalgo County, South Texas, USA. The PM_2.5 and CO₂ were monitored indoors: the kitchen and the bedroom. This investigation also aimed to elucidate the effects of household activities such as cooking and human occupancy on these pollutants. Low-cost sensors (LCSs) from TSI AirAssure™ were used in this study. They were deployed within the breathing zone at approximately 1.5 m above the ground. Calibration of the low-cost sensors against Federal Equivalent Method (FEM) instruments was undertaken using a multiple linear regression method (MLR) model to improve the data accuracy. The indoor PM_2.5 levels were significantly influenced by cooking activities, with the peak PM_2.5 concentrations reaching up to 118.45 μg/m³. The CO₂ levels in the bedroom increased during the occupant’s sleeping period, reaching as high as 1149.73 ppm. The health risk assessment was assessed through toxicity potential (TP) calculations for the PM_2.5 concentrations. TP values of 0.21 and 0.20 were obtained in the kitchen and bedroom, respectively. The TP values were below the health hazard threshold (i.e., TP < 1). These low TP values could be attributed to the use of electric stoves and efficient ventilation systems. This research highlights the effectiveness of low-cost sensors for continuous IAQ monitoring and helps promote better awareness of and necessary interventions for salubrious indoor microenvironments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Quality, Health and Climate)

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14 pages, 542 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Review of Chitosan as a Coagulant of Health-Related Microorganisms in Water and Wastewater

by Collin Knox Coleman, Hemali H. Oza, Emily S. Bailey and Mark D. Sobsey

Environments 2024, 11(10), 211; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11100211 - 24 Sep 2024

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 11012

Abstract

The coagulation and flocculation properties of chitosan, an organic biopolymer derived from chitin, have been researched as an alternative to synthetic polymers and inorganic metal salt coagulants currently used in water and wastewater treatment. In an effort to encourage further research into the [...] Read more.

The coagulation and flocculation properties of chitosan, an organic biopolymer derived from chitin, have been researched as an alternative to synthetic polymers and inorganic metal salt coagulants currently used in water and wastewater treatment. In an effort to encourage further research into the practical uses of chitosan as green chemistry in water and wastewater treatment and to promote the efficacious removal of microbial contaminants in drinking and wastewater, we have summarized the current state of research pertaining to the treatment of microorganisms in water and wastewater. A search of PubMed revealed 720 possible titles and abstracts, of which 44 full-text articles were identified as matching the eligibility criteria for inclusion in this systematic review. Results are presented based on the type of water matrix treated (i.e., drinking water, wastewater, and recreational waters) and a summary table providing details on the types and forms of chitosan utilized and the treatment mechanisms and processes described in the study. We find chitosan to be an effective coagulant, flocculant, and adsorbent for removing microbes from water and wastewater; some modified forms of chitosan can inactivate microbes and achieve disinfection, such as those containing metals like silver and antimicrobial chemicals like quaternary ammonium compounds or other strong oxidants, and use with filtration or electrochemical processes can achieve extensive reductions in microbes to meet performance targets of the World Health Organization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies of Water and Wastewater Treatment (2nd Edition))

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18 pages, 2820 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Life Cycle Assessment of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Remediation Technologies: A Literature Review

by Xingqiang Song, Malin Montelius and Christel Carlsson

Environments 2024, 11(9), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11090203 - 17 Sep 2024

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 9822

Abstract

The remediation of environments contaminated with per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) has become a growing priority due to the persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic characteristics of these compounds. To promote green and sustainable remediation practices, it is crucial to assess and minimize the environmental [...] Read more.

The remediation of environments contaminated with per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) has become a growing priority due to the persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic characteristics of these compounds. To promote green and sustainable remediation practices, it is crucial to assess and minimize the environmental impacts of PFAS remediation projects through life cycle assessment (LCA) at the early stages of planning. So far, no systematic literature review has been published to assess the current state of the art or identify the challenges associated with applying LCA to PFAS remediation. This article provides a review of the recent literature on LCAs of PFAS remediation, following the ISO 14040 and 14044 standards. The results indicate that the application of LCA to PFAS remediation remains in its infancy and is highly fragmented. Significant methodological variations, including differences in system boundaries and data quality, hinder the comparability and benchmarking of LCA results across studies. To enhance the use of LCA as a decision support tool for environmental assessment, there is a pressing need for methodological harmonization and improved practices. Key areas for improvement include enhancing data quality, reducing uncertainties, and increasing the robustness of PFAS LCAs, thereby enabling more informed and sustainable decision-making in PFAS remediation efforts. Full article

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32 pages, 6632 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Ecosystem Services of the Baltic Sea—State and Changes during the Last 150 Years

by Gerald Schernewski, Thomas Neumann, Martynas Bučas and Miriam von Thenen

Environments 2024, 11(9), 200; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11090200 - 14 Sep 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4187

Abstract

We assess the ecosystem services across the entire Baltic Sea using ecosystem model simulations and historical socio-economic data. Our approach covers 150 years, aggregated for the years around 1880, 1960, and 2010. The ecosystem services assessed include commercially usable wild fish biomass and [...] Read more.

We assess the ecosystem services across the entire Baltic Sea using ecosystem model simulations and historical socio-economic data. Our approach covers 150 years, aggregated for the years around 1880, 1960, and 2010. The ecosystem services assessed include commercially usable wild fish biomass and wild plant biomass, water quality regulation (nitrogen and phosphorus retention), carbon storage, biodiversity and habitats, as well as active recreation and landscape aesthetics. In 2010, the commercially usable fish biomass in the entire Baltic Sea was 9.24 million tons. The total retention of nitrogen in the Baltic Sea was 884,135 t/a, phosphorus retention was 32,058 t/a, and carbon storage was 3,668,100 t/a. Between 1880 and 2010, the Baltic Sea-wide average biodiversity index decreased from 73 to 60, the active recreational quality index decreased from 76 to 69, and the observational recreation index declined from 91 to 78. In 2010, the most monetarily significant single ecosystem service in the Baltic Sea was nitrogen retention with EUR 26,822 million/a, followed by cultural ecosystem services. Other relevant services were fish catches (EUR 277 million/a), phosphorus retention (EUR 3854 million/a), and carbon storage (202 million/a). The latter recently showed a steep increase due to rising prices for CO₂ certificates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring and Assessment of Environmental Quality in Coastal Ecosystems Volume III)

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28 pages, 719 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Review of the Adverse Effects of Neonicotinoids on the Environment

by Zyanya L. Mota, Itzel A. Díaz, Adriana E. Martínez-Ávila, M. Otero-Olvera, Dania Leyva-Ruíz, L. S. Aponte-Pineda, S. G. Rangel-Duarte, J. R. Pacheco-Aguilar, Aldo Amaro-Reyes, J. Campos-Guillén, L. A. Montes-Flores and M. A. Ramos-López

Environments 2024, 11(9), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11090196 - 10 Sep 2024

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 8852

Abstract

Neonicotinoids are a group of insecticides developed in the 1980s, reaching extensive use in agriculture in the 1990s due to their effectiveness against pests in various types of crops. In 2014, their use reached 25% of the global market. In the last decade, [...] Read more.

Neonicotinoids are a group of insecticides developed in the 1980s, reaching extensive use in agriculture in the 1990s due to their effectiveness against pests in various types of crops. In 2014, their use reached 25% of the global market. In the last decade, studies on their possible effects have been conducted, leading to bans and regulations in several European Union countries. Their persistence in soil and water can result in chronic exposure in aquatic and terrestrial organisms, including pollinator species. The accumulation of these compounds in the environment can disrupt ecosystems and affect the health of humans, plants, and animals. This review presents current knowledge on neonicotinoids, their mechanisms of action, and their transport in ecological spheres. Their presence in water and soil is evidenced, with specific concentrations reported in various regions. Their effects on non-target organisms, including aquatic animals and humans, can be negative, causing direct and indirect neurological and renal problems after exposure. More research is needed on the long-term effects on health and non-target organisms to fully understand the implications of these insecticides. Full article

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20 pages, 786 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Impacts of PFAS Exposure on Neurodevelopment: A Comprehensive Literature Review

by Seth D. Currie, Jia-Sheng Wang and Lili Tang

Environments 2024, 11(9), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11090188 - 1 Sep 2024

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 12737

Abstract

Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) encompass a range of conditions that begin during the developmental stage and cause deficits that lead to disruptions in normal functioning. One class of chemicals that is of increasing concern for neurodevelopmental disorders is made up of per- and polyfluoroalkyl [...] Read more.

Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) encompass a range of conditions that begin during the developmental stage and cause deficits that lead to disruptions in normal functioning. One class of chemicals that is of increasing concern for neurodevelopmental disorders is made up of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). In this comprehensive literature review, we investigated data from epidemiological studies to understand the connection between PFAS exposure and neurodevelopmental endpoints such as cognitive function, intelligence (IQ), and memory, along with behavioral changes like Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). When we reviewed the findings from individual studies that analyzed PFAS levels in biological samples and their association with NDD, we concluded that there was a correlation between PFAS and neurodevelopmental disorders. The findings suggest that children exposed to higher PFAS levels could potentially have an increased risk of ASD and ADHD along with an inhibitory effect on IQ. While the results vary from one study to another, there is increasing association between PFAS exposure and neurodevelopmental disorders. Importantly, the findings provide valuable insights into the adverse effects associated with PFAS exposure and neurodevelopment. Full article

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15 pages, 1352 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Nickel and Soil Fertility: Review of Benefits to Environment and Food Security

by Alon Rabinovich, Rong Di, Sean Lindert and Joseph Heckman

Environments 2024, 11(8), 177; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11080177 - 20 Aug 2024

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 9383

Abstract

Nickel (Ni) is an essential micronutrient for plants, responsible for metabolizing urea nitrogen (urea-N) by urease and mitigating abiotic and oxidative stresses through the glyoxalase (Gly) and glutathione (GSH) cycles. However, excess Ni is toxic to flora at >100 mg kg⁻¹, [...] Read more.

Nickel (Ni) is an essential micronutrient for plants, responsible for metabolizing urea nitrogen (urea-N) by urease and mitigating abiotic and oxidative stresses through the glyoxalase (Gly) and glutathione (GSH) cycles. However, excess Ni is toxic to flora at >100 mg kg⁻¹, except for hyperaccumulators that tolerate >1000 mg kg⁻¹ Ni. This review discusses the benefits of Ni nutrient management for soil fertility, improving food security, and minimizing adverse environmental impacts from urea overapplication. Many farming soils are Ni deficient, suggesting that applying 0.05–5 kg ha⁻¹ of Ni improves yield and urea-N use efficiency. Applied foliar and soil Ni fertilizers decrease biotic stresses primarily by control of fungal diseases. The bioavailability of Ni is the limiting factor for urease synthesis in plants, animal guts, and the soil microbiome. Improved urease activity in plants and subsequently through feed in livestock guts reduces the release of nitrous oxide and nitrite pollutants. Fertilizer Ni applied to crops is dispersed in vegetative tissue since Ni is highly mobile in plants and is not accumulated in fruit or leafy tissues to cause health concerns for consumers. New methods for micronutrient delivery, including rhizophagy, recycled struvite, and nanoparticle fertilizers, can improve Ni bioavailability in farming systems. Full article

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14 pages, 2641 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

From Waste to Resource: Evaluating Biomass Residues as Ozone-Catalyst Precursors for the Removal of Recalcitrant Water Pollutants

by Cátia A. L. Graça and Olívia Salomé Gonçalves Pinto Soares

Environments 2024, 11(8), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11080172 - 12 Aug 2024

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2671

Abstract

Five different biomass wastes—orange peel, coffee grounds, cork, almond shell, and peanut shell—were transformed into biochars (BCs) or activated carbons (ACs) to serve as adsorbents and/or ozone catalysts for the removal of recalcitrant water treatment products. Oxalic acid (OXL) was used as a [...] Read more.

Five different biomass wastes—orange peel, coffee grounds, cork, almond shell, and peanut shell—were transformed into biochars (BCs) or activated carbons (ACs) to serve as adsorbents and/or ozone catalysts for the removal of recalcitrant water treatment products. Oxalic acid (OXL) was used as a model pollutant due to its known refractory character towards ozone. The obtained materials were characterized by different techniques, namely thermogravimetric analysis, specific surface area measurement by nitrogen adsorption, and elemental analysis. In adsorption experiments, BCs generally outperformed ACs, except for cork-derived materials. Orange peel BC revealed the highest adsorption capacity (Qe = 40 mg g⁻¹), while almond shell BC showed the best cost–benefit ratio at €0.0096 per mg of OXL adsorbed. In terms of catalytic ozonation, only ACs made from cork and coffee grounds presented significant catalytic activity, achieving pollutant removal rates of 72 and 64%, respectively. Among these materials, ACs made from coffee grounds reveal the best cost/benefit ratio with €0.02 per mg of OXL degraded. Despite the cost analysis showing that these materials are not the cheapest options, other aspects rather than the price alone must be considered in the decision-making process for implementation. This study highlights the promising role of biomass wastes as precursors for efficient and eco-friendly water treatment processes, whether as adsorbents following ozone water treatment or as catalysts in the ozonation reaction itself. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Micropollutants in Water)

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22 pages, 944 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Impact of Air Pollution from Industrial Fires in Urban Settings: Monitoring, Modelling, Health, and Environmental Justice Perspectives

by Michael E. Deary and Simon D. Griffiths

Environments 2024, 11(7), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11070157 - 21 Jul 2024

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 10704

Abstract

Industrial fires at facilities including waste management sites, warehouses, factories, chemical works, and fuel storage depots are relatively frequent occurrences. Often, these fires occur adjacent to urban communities and result in ground-level airborne pollutant concentrations that are well above guideline values. Land, water, [...] Read more.

Industrial fires at facilities including waste management sites, warehouses, factories, chemical works, and fuel storage depots are relatively frequent occurrences. Often, these fires occur adjacent to urban communities and result in ground-level airborne pollutant concentrations that are well above guideline values. Land, water, livestock, and crops may also be contaminated by the emissions and by firefighting activities. Moreover, impacted communities tend to have a higher proportion of minority ethnic populations as well as individuals with underlying health vulnerabilities and those of lower socio-economic status. Nevertheless, this is an aspect of air quality that is under-researched, and so this review aims to highlight the public health hazards associated with industrial fires and the need for an effective, coordinated, public health response. We also review the range of monitoring techniques that have been utilised in such fires and highlight the role of dispersion modelling in predicting plume trajectories and in estimating population exposure. We recommend establishing 1 h guideline values for particulate matter to facilitate timely public health interventions, and we highlight the need to review regulatory and technical controls for sites prone to fires, particularly in the waste sector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution in Urban and Industrial Areas II)

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16 pages, 4827 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Influence of Hydrothermal Carbonization (HTC) Temperature on Hydrochar and Process Liquid for Poultry, Swine, and Dairy Manure

by Bilash Devnath, Sami Khanal, Ajay Shah and Toufiq Reza

Environments 2024, 11(7), 150; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11070150 - 14 Jul 2024

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 6339

Abstract

Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) is a promising technology for wet manure treatment by converting animal manure into valuable fuels, materials, and chemicals. Among other HTC process parameters, the temperature influences HTC products the most. As various animal manures have different compositions, it is not [...] Read more.

Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) is a promising technology for wet manure treatment by converting animal manure into valuable fuels, materials, and chemicals. Among other HTC process parameters, the temperature influences HTC products the most. As various animal manures have different compositions, it is not certain how the HTC temperature influences the hydrochar and HTC process liquid. To evaluate the temperature’s effect on HTC, three different manures (poultry, swine, and dairy) were hydrothermally carbonized at three different temperatures (180, 220, and 260 °C), and solid and liquid products were characterized for their morphology, elemental compositions, and ions. The carbon contents of the hydrochar reached as high as 38.98 ± 0.36% and 40.05 ± 0.57% for poultry and swine manure, respectively, when these manures were treated at 260 °C. Ammonium showed an around 30% increase in poultry manure hydrochar with the increase in the HTC temperature. In contrast, in swine manure, it decreased by around 80%, and in dairy manure, the HTC temperature did not have any remarkable effect on the ammonium content. The process liquids from HTC of dairy manure at 220 °C showed the most balanced distribution of different ions, with 4970 ± 673 ppm of sodium, 4354 ± 437 ppm of ammonium, 2766 ± 417 ppm of potassium, 978 ± 82 ppm of magnesium, 953 ± 143 ppm of calcium, 3607 ± 16 ppm of chloride, and 39 ± 7 ppm of phosphate. These results emphasize the manure-specific effects of the HTC temperature on both solid and liquid products, indicating the need for optimized strategies to enhance HTC processes for various types of animal manures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermochemical Treatments of Biomass)

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30 pages, 2848 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Life Cycle Assessment in Renewable Energy: Solar and Wind Perspectives

by Francisco Portillo, Alfredo Alcayde, Rosa Maria Garcia, Manuel Fernandez-Ros, Jose Antonio Gazquez and Nuria Novas

Environments 2024, 11(7), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11070147 - 12 Jul 2024

Cited by 51 | Viewed by 24257

Abstract

The growing urgency for sustainable energy solutions necessitates a deeper understanding of the environmental impacts of renewable technologies. This article aims to synthesize and analyze Life Cycle Assessments (LCA) in this domain, providing a comprehensive perspective. We systematically categorized 2923 articles into four [...] Read more.

The growing urgency for sustainable energy solutions necessitates a deeper understanding of the environmental impacts of renewable technologies. This article aims to synthesize and analyze Life Cycle Assessments (LCA) in this domain, providing a comprehensive perspective. We systematically categorized 2923 articles into four sectors: (1) photovoltaic systems, (2) wind energy systems, (3) solar thermal systems, and (4) materials for auxiliary industry supporting these systems. A comparative analysis was conducted to identify methodological consistencies and disparities across these sectors. The findings reveal diverse methodological approaches and a range of environmental impacts, highlighting the complexities in assessing renewable energy systems. The article underscores the significance of material selection in photovoltaic, solar, and wind systems, providing a critical overview of the current state of LCA research in renewable energy and stressing the need for standardized methodologies. It also identifies gaps in recent research, offering insights for future studies focused on integrating environmental, economic, and social considerations in renewable energy assessments. Integrating environmental assessments provides a robust framework for making informed decisions on sustainable technologies. The findings are critical for projects that balance technological needs with sustainability goals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Balancing Energy and Environment: A Life Cycle Assessment Perspective)

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26 pages, 2828 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Svalbard Fjord Sediments as a Hotspot of Functional Diversity and a Reservoir of Antibiotic Resistance

by Gabriella Caruso, Alessandro Ciro Rappazzo, Giovanna Maimone, Giuseppe Zappalà, Alessandro Cosenza, Marta Szubska and Agata Zaborska

Environments 2024, 11(7), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11070148 - 12 Jul 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3350

Abstract

The sea bottom acts as a key natural archive where the memory of long-term timescale environmental changes is recorded. This study discusses some ecological and chemical features of fjord sediments that were explored during the AREX cruise carried out in the Svalbard archipelago [...] Read more.

The sea bottom acts as a key natural archive where the memory of long-term timescale environmental changes is recorded. This study discusses some ecological and chemical features of fjord sediments that were explored during the AREX cruise carried out in the Svalbard archipelago in the summer of 2021. The activity rates of the enzymes leucine aminopeptidase (LAP), beta-glucosidase (GLU), and alkaline phosphatase (AP) and community-level physiological profiles (CLPPs) were studied with the aim of determining the functional diversity of the benthic microbial community, while bacterial isolates were screened for their susceptibility to antibiotics in order to explore the role of these extreme environments as potential reservoirs of antibiotic resistance. Enzyme activity rates were obtained using fluorogenic substrates, and CLPPs were obtained using Biolog Ecoplates; antibiotic susceptibility assays were performed through the standard disk diffusion method. Spatial trends observed in the functional profiles of the microbial community suggested variability in the microbial community’s composition, presumably related to the patchy distribution of organic substrates. Complex carbon sources, carbohydrates, and amino acids were the organic polymers preferentially metabolized by the microbial community. Multi-resistance to enrofloxacin and tetracycline was detected in all of the examined samples, stressing the role of sediments as a potential reservoir of chemical wastes ascribable to antibiotic residuals. This study provides new insights on the health status of fjord sediments of West Spitsbergen, applying a dual ecological and biochemical approach. Microbial communities in the fjord sediments showed globally a good functional diversity, suggesting their versatility to rapidly react to changing conditions. The lack of significant diversification among the three studied areas suggests that microbial variables alone cannot be suitable descriptors of sediment health, and that additional measures (i.e., physical–chemical characteristics) should be taken to better define environmental status. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring and Assessment of Environmental Quality in Coastal Ecosystems Volume III)

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24 pages, 4558 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Air-Polluting Emissions from Pyrolysis Plants: A Systematic Mapping

by Alberto Pivato, Hamad Gohar, Diogenes L. Antille, Andrea Schievano, Giovanni Beggio, Philipp Reichardt, Francesco Di Maria, Wei Peng, Stefano Castegnaro and Maria Cristina Lavagnolo

Environments 2024, 11(7), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11070149 - 12 Jul 2024

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 10812

Abstract

There is a growing interest in the use of pyrolysis plants for the conversion of solid waste into useful products (e.g., oil, gas, and char) and the analysis of air-polluting emissions associated with such a process is an emerging research field. This study [...] Read more.

There is a growing interest in the use of pyrolysis plants for the conversion of solid waste into useful products (e.g., oil, gas, and char) and the analysis of air-polluting emissions associated with such a process is an emerging research field. This study applied a systematic mapping approach to collating, describing, and cataloging available evidence related to the type and level of air pollutants emitted from pyrolysis plants, the factors affecting emissions, and available mitigation strategies that can be adopted to reduce air pollution. The scientific literature indexed in Scopus and Google Scholar, as well as available industry reports, was interrogated to document the evidence. A database comprising 63 studies was synthesized and cataloged from which 25 air pollutants from pyrolysis plants were considered, including volatile organic compounds and persistent organic pollutants. Air pollutant levels varied depending on the scale of the pyrolysis plants, their operating conditions, and the feedstock used. Various technologies, such as wet scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators, and baghouse filters, are available and have been utilized to reduce emissions and comply with the existing EU regulations for waste incineration (2010/75/EU). The systematic mapping identified several knowledge gaps that need to be addressed to inform relevant environmental policymaking, technology development, and the adoption of best practices for the mitigation of emissions from pyrolysis plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermochemical Treatments of Biomass)

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16 pages, 2755 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Microplastics in the Mississippi River System during Flash Drought Conditions

by Kendall Wontor, Boluwatife S. Olubusoye and James V. Cizdziel

Environments 2024, 11(7), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11070141 - 3 Jul 2024

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3813

Abstract

The Mississippi River System is of great ecological and economic importance, making it crucial to monitor contaminants within it. While nutrient pollution is well studied, there are little data on microplastics (MPs) in the Mississippi River System (MSRS), especially during drought conditions. Herein, [...] Read more.

The Mississippi River System is of great ecological and economic importance, making it crucial to monitor contaminants within it. While nutrient pollution is well studied, there are little data on microplastics (MPs) in the Mississippi River System (MSRS), especially during drought conditions. Herein, we characterize MP pollution from seven sites across the MSRS during both flash drought and non-drought periods using FTIR microspectroscopy (µ-FTIR). Additionally, we evaluate the impact of multiple water level conditions on MP polymer composition across five time points at a single sampling site. Of all MPs identified, polyethylene terephthalate (PET, 22%), resin (17%), and polyethylene (PE, 10%) were the most abundant polymers. Average concentrations ranged from 16 to 381 MPs/L across seven sites, with no significant difference in concentration between conditions. Irregular particles were the most common morphology, with most MPs falling in the lowest size range measured (30–100 μm). Drought condition had a significant (p < 0.001) impact on polymer composition, and polymers most strongly correlated with flash drought were mostly fluoropolymers. For the single sampling site, concentrations differed, but not significantly, across the five timepoints. These results demonstrate the complex relationship between MP concentration and drought condition, and also highlight the importance of fully characterizing MPs in environmental studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastics Pollution in Aquatic Ecosystems: Challenges and Perspectives)

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17 pages, 2394 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Navigating Environmental Concerns: Assessing the Ecological Footprint of Photovoltaic-Produced Energy

by Halina Falfushynska

Environments 2024, 11(7), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11070140 - 1 Jul 2024

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3737

Abstract

The European Union’s Green Deal concept prioritizes the installation of photovoltaic and wind turbine systems, with the aim of significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions and expanding the use of renewable energy. The inclusion of metals/metaloids such as Cd, Pb, Ni, and As to [...] Read more.

The European Union’s Green Deal concept prioritizes the installation of photovoltaic and wind turbine systems, with the aim of significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions and expanding the use of renewable energy. The inclusion of metals/metaloids such as Cd, Pb, Ni, and As to PV panels may be a matter of concern because they may provoke numerous negative environmental effects, especially after decommissioning. Although the release of Pb and Cd from solar panels is generally low, these releases may increase, posing long-term harm. Cd and Pb, if only released from solar panels, can enter the environment, including soil and water, posing a significant risk to human health and ecosystems. Cd, in particular, can have profound and lasting negative impacts on animals and humans, affecting cellular responses, enzyme operations, and immune system functionality. Pb exposure, in turn, can induce oxidative stress and neurotoxicity, disrupt ion regulatory pathways, and impair immune function. Despite efforts to reduce the release of toxic metals from PV panels, controlling their disposal and avoiding environmental contamination remains challenging. Discovering substitute materials for PV panel manufacture, implementing enhanced recycling procedures, performing bioremediation, and enforcing stronger restrictions are among the strategies to mitigate environmental concerns. Full article

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21 pages, 1505 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Heavy Metals in Pyrolysis of Contaminated Wastes: Phase Distribution and Leaching Behaviour

by Erlend Sørmo, Gabrielle Dublet-Adli, Gladys Menlah, Gudny Øyre Flatabø, Valentina Zivanovic, Per Carlsson, Åsgeir Almås and Gerard Cornelissen

Environments 2024, 11(6), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11060130 - 19 Jun 2024

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6785

Abstract

Pyrolysis is a recognized alternative for the sustainable management of contaminated organic waste, as it yields energy-rich gas, oil, and a carbon-rich biochar product. Low-volatility compounds, however, such as heavy metals (HMs; As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Zn) typically accumulate in [...] Read more.

Pyrolysis is a recognized alternative for the sustainable management of contaminated organic waste, as it yields energy-rich gas, oil, and a carbon-rich biochar product. Low-volatility compounds, however, such as heavy metals (HMs; As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Zn) typically accumulate in biochars, limiting their application potential, especially for soil improvement. The distribution of HMs in pyrolysis products is influenced by treatment temperature and the properties of both the HMs and the feedstock. There is a significant knowledge gap in our understanding of the mass balances of HMs in full-scale industrial pyrolysis systems. Therefore, the fate of HMs during full-scale relevant pyrolysis (500–800 °C) of seven contaminated feedstocks and a clean wood feedstock were investigated for the first time. Most of the HMs accumulated in the biochar (fixation rates (FR) >70%), but As, Cd, Pb, and Zn partly partitioned into the flue gas at temperatures ≥ 600 °C, as demonstrated by FRs of <30% for some of the feedstocks. Emission factors (EFs, mg per tonne biochar produced) for particle-bound HMs (<0.45 µm) were 0.04–7.7 for As, 0.002–0.41 for Cd, 0.01–208 for Pb, and 0.09–342 for Zn. Only minor fractions of the HMs were found in the condensate (0–11.5%). To investigate the mobility of HMs accumulated in the biochars, a novel leaching test for sustained pH drop (at pH 4, 5.5 and 7) was developed. It was revealed that increasing pyrolysis temperature led to stronger incorporation of HMs in the sludge-based biochar matrix: after pyrolysis at 800 °C, at pH 4, <1% of total Cr, Cu, Ni, and Pb and < 10% of total As and Zn contents in the biochars were leached. Most interestingly, the high HM mobility observed in wood-based biochars compared to sewage-sludge-based biochars indicates the need to develop specific environmental-management thresholds for soil application of sewage-sludge biochars. Accordingly, more research is needed to better understand what governs the mobility of HMs in sewage-sludge biochars to provide a sound basis for future policy-making. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermochemical Treatments of Biomass)

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24 pages, 1545 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Critical Review of Life Cycle Assessment of Hydrogen Production Pathways

by Manfredi Picciotto Maniscalco, Sonia Longo, Maurizio Cellura, Gabriele Miccichè and Marco Ferraro

Environments 2024, 11(6), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11060108 - 24 May 2024

Cited by 114 | Viewed by 19016

Abstract

In light of growing concerns regarding greenhouse gas emissions and the increasingly severe impacts of climate change, the global situation demands immediate action to transition towards sustainable energy solutions. In this sense, hydrogen could play a fundamental role in the energy transition, offering [...] Read more.

In light of growing concerns regarding greenhouse gas emissions and the increasingly severe impacts of climate change, the global situation demands immediate action to transition towards sustainable energy solutions. In this sense, hydrogen could play a fundamental role in the energy transition, offering a potential clean and versatile energy carrier. This paper reviews the recent results of Life Cycle Assessment studies of different hydrogen production pathways, which are trying to define the routes that can guarantee the least environmental burdens. Steam methane reforming was considered as the benchmark for Global Warming Potential, with an average emission of 11 kg_CO2eq/kg_H2. Hydrogen produced from water electrolysis powered by renewable energy (green H₂) or nuclear energy (pink H₂) showed the average lowest impacts, with mean values of 2.02 kg_CO2eq/kg_H2 and 0.41 kg_CO2eq/kg_H2, respectively. The use of grid electricity to power the electrolyzer (yellow H₂) raised the mean carbon footprint up to 17.2 kg_CO2eq/kg_H2, with a peak of 41.4 kg_CO2eq/kg_H2 in the case of countries with low renewable energy production. Waste pyrolysis and/or gasification presented average emissions three times higher than steam methane reforming, while the recourse to residual biomass and biowaste significantly lowered greenhouse gas emissions. The acidification potential presents comparable results for all the technologies studied, except for biomass gasification which showed significantly higher and more scattered values. Regarding the abiotic depletion potential (mineral), the main issue is the lack of an established recycling strategy, especially for electrolysis technologies that hamper the inclusion of the End of Life stage in LCA computation. Whenever data were available, hotspots for each hydrogen production process were identified. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Balancing Energy and Environment: A Life Cycle Assessment Perspective)

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46 pages, 6949 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Fin Whale Balaenoptera physalus Historical Sightings and Strandings, Ship Strikes, Breeding Areas and Other Threats in the Mediterranean Sea: A Review (1624–2023)

by Rocío Espada, Adrián Camacho-Sánchez, Liliana Olaya-Ponzone, Estefanía Martín-Moreno, Daniel Patón and José Carlos García-Gómez

Environments 2024, 11(6), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11060104 - 21 May 2024

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 7051

Abstract

A review of the last 399 years (1624–2023) on fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus) in the Mediterranean Sea was conducted, based on an extensive compilation of records published in the scientific literature, technical reports, public databases, journals, and social media. A total [...] Read more.

A review of the last 399 years (1624–2023) on fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus) in the Mediterranean Sea was conducted, based on an extensive compilation of records published in the scientific literature, technical reports, public databases, journals, and social media. A total of 10,716 sightings and 575 mortality events have been computed, analysed by semesters and mapped in order to compare the summer–winter seasons especially and their implications on migration–residence. Visual and acoustic detections, feedings, migrations, primary production areas (chlorophyll), threats and causes of death and their relations have been addressed, and a mini-review on heavy metals and pollutants has been carried out on fin whales in the Mediterranean Sea. Mortality events were most frequent between November and April, coinciding with the decreased sighting period. Ship strikes posed the greatest threat, peaking between May and October, when marine traffic tends to increase in the Mediterranean Sea. Two populations coexist in the Mediterranean Sea, one resident and the other migratory, the latter using the Strait of Gibraltar for its biannual movements. Two areas with a presence of calves (up to 7 m in length) between October and February were detected: one scattered in the northern Mediterranean and the Strait of Gibraltar and its surroundings. A critical zone for collisions has been established according to the results for fin whales in the Mediterranean Sea. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environments: 10 Years of Science Together)

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19 pages, 1462 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Water Reuse: A Comprehensive Review

by Fivos Florides, Maria Giannakoudi, Giorgos Ioannou, Despoina Lazaridou, Elissavet Lamprinidou, Nikolaos Loukoutos, Maria Spyridou, Eleftherios Tosounidis, Maria Xanthopoulou and Ioannis A. Katsoyiannis

Environments 2024, 11(4), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11040081 - 13 Apr 2024

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 18004

Abstract

Water scarcity has emerged as a pressing global concern, driven by population growth, urbanization, and climate change. As freshwater resources dwindle, the imperative for water reuse becomes increasingly apparent. Reusing water presents a sustainable solution to mitigate scarcity, offering a way to maximize [...] Read more.

Water scarcity has emerged as a pressing global concern, driven by population growth, urbanization, and climate change. As freshwater resources dwindle, the imperative for water reuse becomes increasingly apparent. Reusing water presents a sustainable solution to mitigate scarcity, offering a way to maximize the efficiency of available resources. This review delves into the multifaceted landscape of water consumption and reuse, aiming to provide a comprehensive analysis and understanding of this critical issue. It explores the diverse implications of unregulated water consumption, spanning from its impacts on household routines to its profound influence on economic activities. Additionally, it scrutinizes the legislative framework surrounding water usage, shedding light on the policies and regulations in place. Furthermore, the review investigates the current status of water reuse practices in Europe, delving into various methods of water recovery. Finally, it examines public perceptions and attitudes toward recycled water, offering insights into the societal outlook on this increasingly vital aspect of water management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies of Water and Wastewater Treatment)

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16 pages, 543 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Origin of Phthalates in Algae: Biosynthesis and Environmental Bioaccumulation

by Andrea Pace, Alessandro Vaglica, Antonella Maccotta and Dario Savoca

Environments 2024, 11(4), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11040078 - 11 Apr 2024

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5761

Abstract

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are a class of ubiquitous and dangerous lipophilic chemicals widely used as additives in various products to improve their physical and chemical properties. Although they have been banned in many countries, their persistence in all environmental compartments is of [...] Read more.

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are a class of ubiquitous and dangerous lipophilic chemicals widely used as additives in various products to improve their physical and chemical properties. Although they have been banned in many countries, their persistence in all environmental compartments is of particular concern. The aquatic environment is especially affected by these compounds because it is strongly influenced both by contamination of anthropic origin and natural contaminants including those produced biosynthetically by some organisms such as algae. In this context, algal organisms can be a source and remedy for phthalate pollution. Both the increase and decrease in uptake and production depend on the physicochemical characteristics of the environment. The dynamics of the natural processes are aimed at achieving an optimal environmental state for their competitiveness and balance of the cellular homeostasis. This review summarizes the studies dealing with biosynthesis and bioaccumulation of phthalates in algae and investigates the source of their origin by suggesting strategies to identify the process leading to their presence. Full article

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15 pages, 3831 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

An Effective Biomonitor of Potentially Toxic Elements in Marine Ecosystems: The Brown Alga Dictyota spiralis

by Maria Antonietta Nitopi, Daniela Baldantoni, Vincenzo Baldi, Floriana Di Stefano and Alessandro Bellino

Environments 2024, 11(3), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11030051 - 8 Mar 2024

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3908

Abstract

Coastal marine areas are threatened by different forms of pollution, among which potentially toxic elements (PTEs) represent a primary hazard. In this study, 16 Mediterranean macroalgae colonizing the upper eulittoral and infralittoral zones were studied for their PTE accumulation capabilities in order to [...] Read more.

Coastal marine areas are threatened by different forms of pollution, among which potentially toxic elements (PTEs) represent a primary hazard. In this study, 16 Mediterranean macroalgae colonizing the upper eulittoral and infralittoral zones were studied for their PTE accumulation capabilities in order to identify possible biomonitors that could replace the use of Posidonia oceanica, a protected species. To achieve this objective, macronutrients (Ca, K, Mg, P, S), micronutrients (Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Na, Ni, Si, V, Zn) and non-essential elements (Cd, Pb) were analyzed in the thalli of different algal species, the leaves of P. oceanica and in sediments collected from six sampling sites along the Cilento coast (Campania, Italy), all characterized by different anthropogenic pressures. For sediments, a sequential extraction of PTEs to evaluate their bioavailability profile was also carried out together with the analysis of mineralogical composition, particle size distribution, pH and organic matter content. Macrophytes, belonging to different divisions (six Rhodophyta, four Chlorophyta, six Heterokontophyta, one Embryophyta), are characterized by different PTE concentrations, with a few ones being characterized by an even accumulation response toward the different PTEs. One of these, the brown alga Dictyota spiralis, is able to accumulate PTEs in concentrations similar to P. oceanica and provides more accurate concentration gradients, highlighting clear pollution scenarios that were overlooked using P. oceanica only. Therefore, D. spiralis is a useful PTE biomonitor of coastal marine ecosystems and a suitable replacement for P. oceanica, also featuring the possibility of being employed in active biomonitoring applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metal Contamination Biomonitoring with Marine Macroalgae)

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18 pages, 4602 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Exposure of Zebrafish Embryos to Urea Affects NOS1 Gene Expression in Neuronal Cells

by Pietro Cacialli, Serena Ricci, Flavia Frabetti, Sara Ferrando and Valeria Franceschini

Environments 2024, 11(3), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11030041 - 21 Feb 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4756

Abstract

Nitrogen-based fertilizers represent the most common fertilization tools, particularly used in crop food agriculture, despite the low cost-efficiency and the high negative environmental impact. At present, there is still inadequate information available about the effects of urea on human health; nevertheless, previous studies [...] Read more.

Nitrogen-based fertilizers represent the most common fertilization tools, particularly used in crop food agriculture, despite the low cost-efficiency and the high negative environmental impact. At present, there is still inadequate information available about the effects of urea on human health; nevertheless, previous studies in animals observed that high urea concentration exposure can damage different tissues, including the brain. In several vertebrates, a crucial factor involved in neuronal cell formation is represented by the gas molecule, nitric oxide (NO), derived from the conversion of arginine to citrulline through the enzymatic activity of nitric oxide synthases (NOS). In zebrafish, three different isoforms of the NOS gene are known: nos1, nos2a, and nos2b. In the present study we show that nos1 represents the unique isoform with a stable high expression in the brain and spinal cord during all the embryonic stages of zebrafish development. Then, by using a specific transgenic zebrafish line, Tg(HuC:GFP), to mark neuronal cells, we observed nos1 to be specifically expressed in neurons. Interestingly, we observed that urea exposure at sub-lethal doses affected cell proliferation and the number of nos1-expressing cells, inducing apoptosis. Consistently, brain NO levels were observed to be reduced in urea-treated animals compared to untreated ones. This finding represents the first evidence that urea exposure affects the expression of a key gene involved in neuronal cell formation during embryonic development. Full article

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50 pages, 674 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Rare Earth Elements (REE): Origins, Dispersion, and Environmental Implications—A Comprehensive Review

by Manfred Sager and Oliver Wiche

Environments 2024, 11(2), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11020024 - 24 Jan 2024

Cited by 102 | Viewed by 25372

Abstract

The rare earth elements (REE) comprise a group of 16 chemically very similar elements that occur widespread in rocks, soils, and water bodies, share similar ionic radii to the essential element Ca²⁺, and consequently also occur in biota. Given that REE [...] Read more.

The rare earth elements (REE) comprise a group of 16 chemically very similar elements that occur widespread in rocks, soils, and water bodies, share similar ionic radii to the essential element Ca²⁺, and consequently also occur in biota. Given that REE form mainly trivalent cations, they also share similarities to Al³⁺. Compared to their chemical cognate Ca, they have a higher reactivity. Thus, their accumulation in soils may constitute a severe environmental threat. Over the last decades, the increasing use of REE in modern technology and fertilizers raised concerns about the pollution of soils and water bodies, which led to a rapidly increasing number of publications dealing with REE toxicity to plants, animals and humans, the fate of REE in soil–plant systems, REE cycling in ecosystems and impacts of REE pollution on food security. This review aims to give an overview of the current knowledge on the occurrence of REE in the total environment, including relevant environmental processes governing their mobility, chemical speciation and transfer from abiotic compartments into biota. Beginning with an overview of analytical approaches, we summarize the current knowledge on the ecology of REE in the lithosphere, pedosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere, including impacts of soil pollution on food security and public health. Full article

14 pages, 2767 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Evolution of Freshwater Runoff in the Western Adriatic Sea over the Last Century

by Teresa Sani, Mauro Marini, Alessandra Campanelli, Mariana Machado Toffolo, Stefano Goffredo and Federica Grilli

Environments 2024, 11(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11010022 - 20 Jan 2024

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5042

Abstract

The evaluation of the hydrography and biogeochemistry of the Adriatic Sea over the last century was summarized in this review to point out any changes in river runoff and provide an overview of the cause and effect of these trends on marine ecosystems. [...] Read more.

The evaluation of the hydrography and biogeochemistry of the Adriatic Sea over the last century was summarized in this review to point out any changes in river runoff and provide an overview of the cause and effect of these trends on marine ecosystems. Although several rivers flow into the Adriatic, the most affected area is the northern Adriatic, where the Po River loads into the basin half of the total freshwater input, carrying river runoff and causing algal blooms and hypoxia phenomena. These fresh waters of the northern Adriatic flow predominantly along the entire western side, reaching the southernmost part of the basin up to the Mediterranean Sea. Here, and in the whole basin, variations in river runoff and nutrient concentration have been observed through the years. Starting from 1960 until the end of the century, an increase in nutrient discharge and phytoplankton activity was reported, with negative repercussions on local fisheries, species richness, and recreational activities within the basin. However, a recent decrease in river inflow has been observed along the coastal belt, which can trigger negative consequences for the food web of the marine ecosystem. These trends, more broadly, corroborate the vulnerability of the Adriatic Sea and stress the importance of implementing strategies for the defense of the relevant ecosystems within its confines. Full article

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14 pages, 4553 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Sustainability Assessment of Highly Fluorescent Carbon Dots Derived from Eucalyptus Leaves

by Archana Johny, Luís Pinto da Silva, Carlos M. Pereira and Joaquim C. G. Esteves da Silva

Environments 2024, 11(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11010006 - 1 Jan 2024

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5723

Abstract

Biomass-derived carbon dots (CDs) are gaining much interest in recent times, as they provide a sustainable option with abundant availability, a low cost and tunable luminescence. Herein, we report a simple green synthesis method to produce highly fluorescent CDs from Eucalyptus globulus leaves [...] Read more.

Biomass-derived carbon dots (CDs) are gaining much interest in recent times, as they provide a sustainable option with abundant availability, a low cost and tunable luminescence. Herein, we report a simple green synthesis method to produce highly fluorescent CDs from Eucalyptus globulus leaves using the one-pot hydrothermal approach. The fabricated CDs exhibit strong blue fluorescence with an excitation and emission maxima of 320 nm and 445 nm, respectively. The highest quantum yield (QY) obtained was 60.7%. With the reported optical properties and biocompatibility, CDs can be looked at as a promising candidate for potential biosensing applications. Moreover, we employed a life cycle assessment (LCA) cradle-to-gate approach to study the environmental impacts of the synthesis strategy used for the fabrication of CDs. The results point out that citric acid is the main hotspot in CD synthesis, regarding environmental impacts in most categories. This justifies the introduction of biomass, which reduces the amount of citric acid, thus leading to a more sustainable synthesis strategy for fabricating CDs. Full article

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18 pages, 2033 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Plastic Within: Microplastics Invading Human Organs and Bodily Fluids Systems

by Christian Ebere Enyoh, Arti Devi, Hirofumi Kadono, Qingyue Wang and Mominul Haque Rabin

Environments 2023, 10(11), 194; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments10110194 - 10 Nov 2023

Cited by 74 | Viewed by 20344

Abstract

Microplastics (MPs), small plastic particles resulting from the degradation of larger plastic items and from primary sources such as textiles, engineered plastic pellets, etc., have become a ubiquitous environmental pollutant. As their prevalence in the natural environment grows, concerns about their potential impacts [...] Read more.

Microplastics (MPs), small plastic particles resulting from the degradation of larger plastic items and from primary sources such as textiles, engineered plastic pellets, etc., have become a ubiquitous environmental pollutant. As their prevalence in the natural environment grows, concerns about their potential impacts on human health have escalated. This review discusses current research findings on the presence of MPs in organs such as the liver, blood, heart, placenta, breast milk, sputum, semen, testis, and urine, while also exploring plausible mechanisms of translocation. Furthermore, the review emphasizes the importance of understanding the potential toxicological effects of MPs on various physiological processes within these organs and their broader implications for human health. This review also examines the pathways through which MPs can enter and accumulate in human organs and bodily fluids, shedding light on the intricate routes of exposure and potential health implications. It is worth noting that the invasive medical procedures may permit direct access of MPs to the bloodstream and tissues, serving as a potential contamination source. However, it is evident that a comprehensive understanding of MPs’ invasion into human organs is vital for effective mitigation strategies and the preservation of both human health and the environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plastic Contamination: Challenges and Solutions Volume II)

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25 pages, 3030 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Plastic Mulch Films in Agriculture: Their Use, Environmental Problems, Recycling and Alternatives

by Kotaiba Salama and Martin Geyer

Environments 2023, 10(10), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments10100179 - 11 Oct 2023

Cited by 95 | Viewed by 21321

Abstract

Agricultural plastic mulching is an important horticultural process for increasing crop yields because it preserves soil moisture, soil temperature, and nutrients, and avoids the need for weed herbicides. However, there are risks to using plastic mulch, since residual macroplastic (MaP), microplastic (MP), and [...] Read more.

Agricultural plastic mulching is an important horticultural process for increasing crop yields because it preserves soil moisture, soil temperature, and nutrients, and avoids the need for weed herbicides. However, there are risks to using plastic mulch, since residual macroplastic (MaP), microplastic (MP), and nanoplastic (NP) in fields have a significant negative impact on the environment, causing damage to soil properties, harming microorganisms in the soil, and entering the human body via the food chain. Plastic mulch is often disposed of in landfills or used in techniques like the thermal process to gain energy or recycling to generate plastic granules for the plastic industry. Pretreatments are occasionally required before recycling, such as cleaning the mulch from the soil to fit the recycling process. This review provides an overview of the quantities and negative impacts of plastic, especially plastic mulch films after use, as well as their decomposition products, on the environment, soil, and human health, and presents alternatives. The possibilities and problems of collecting and recycling films are discussed in addition to the alternatives, for example, the use of biodegradable films. Overall, agricultural advancements to reduce plastic waste in the environment by using thicker films, collection after use, and recycling in developed countries are on a good path. However, NP poses a risk, as it is still completely unclear how it affects human health. Alternatives to plastic mulch have found little acceptance so far due to the significantly higher material costs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Plastics, Microplastics, and Nanoplastics in the Environment: Sources, Migration, Contamination, and Sustainable Management Strategies)

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47 pages, 3285 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Meta-Analysis of Satellite Observations for United Nations Sustainable Development Goals: Exploring the Potential of Machine Learning for Water Quality Monitoring

by Sabastian Simbarashe Mukonza and Jie-Lun Chiang

Environments 2023, 10(10), 170; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments10100170 - 2 Oct 2023

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 10704

Abstract

This review paper adopts bibliometric and meta-analysis approaches to explore the application of supervised machine learning regression models in satellite-based water quality monitoring. The consistent pattern observed across peer-reviewed research papers shows an increasing interest in the use of satellites as an innovative [...] Read more.

This review paper adopts bibliometric and meta-analysis approaches to explore the application of supervised machine learning regression models in satellite-based water quality monitoring. The consistent pattern observed across peer-reviewed research papers shows an increasing interest in the use of satellites as an innovative approach for monitoring water quality, a critical step towards addressing the challenges posed by rising anthropogenic water pollution. Traditional methods of monitoring water quality have limitations, but satellite sensors provide a potential solution to that by lowering costs and expanding temporal and spatial coverage. However, conventional statistical methods are limited when faced with the formidable challenge of conducting pattern recognition analysis for satellite geospatial big data because they are characterized by high volume and complexity. As a compelling alternative, the application of machine and deep learning techniques has emerged as an indispensable tool, with the remarkable capability to discern intricate patterns in the data that might otherwise remain elusive to traditional statistics. The study employed a targeted search strategy, utilizing specific criteria and the titles of 332 peer-reviewed journal articles indexed in Scopus, resulting in the inclusion of 165 articles for the meta-analysis. Our comprehensive bibliometric analysis provides insights into the trends, research productivity, and impact of satellite-based water quality monitoring. It highlights key journals and publishers in this domain while examining the relationship between the first author’s presentation, publication year, citation count, and journal impact factor. The major review findings highlight the widespread use of satellite sensors in water quality monitoring including the MultiSpectral Instrument (MSI), Ocean and Land Color Instrument (OLCI), Operational Land Imager (OLI), Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), Thematic Mapper (TM), Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+), and the practice of multi-sensor data fusion. Deep neural networks are identified as popular and high-performing algorithms, with significant competition from extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost), even though XGBoost is relatively newer in the field of machine learning. Chlorophyll-a and water clarity indicators receive special attention, and geo-location had a relationship with optical water classes. This paper contributes significantly by providing extensive examples and in-depth discussions of papers with code, as well as highlighting the critical cyber infrastructure used in this research. Advances in high-performance computing, large-scale data processing capabilities, and the availability of open-source software are facilitating the growing prominence of machine and deep learning applications in geospatial artificial intelligence for water quality monitoring, and this is positively contributing towards monitoring water pollution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Risk Assessment of Aquatic Ecosystem)

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