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Water, Volume 10, Issue 5 (May 2018) – 135 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): This detailed study of 35-year snowpack trends in the vicinity of Rocky Mountain National Park showed slightly dryer (4 mm per decade) and warmer (0.29 °C per decade) winters. Summers were drying and warming at more than twice the rate. There was monthly variability with November and March becoming warmer and drier while December through February and May became wetter. February and May became cooler. There was greater variability and decreases in the snowpack trends on the west side of the study area. The decline was more at higher elevation. View this paper
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17 pages, 4353 KiB  
Article
Assessing the Influence of the Three Gorges Dam on Hydrological Drought Using GRACE Data
by Fupeng Li, Zhengtao Wang, Nengfang Chao and Qingyi Song
Water 2018, 10(5), 669; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050669 - 22 May 2018
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 5891
Abstract
With worldwide economic and social development, more dams are being constructed to meet the increasing demand for hydropower, which may considerably influence hydrological drought. Here, an index named the “Dam Influence Index” (DII) is proposed to assess the influence of the Three Gorges [...] Read more.
With worldwide economic and social development, more dams are being constructed to meet the increasing demand for hydropower, which may considerably influence hydrological drought. Here, an index named the “Dam Influence Index” (DII) is proposed to assess the influence of the Three Gorges Dam (TGD) on hydrological drought in the Yangtze River Basin (YRB) in China. First, the total terrestrial water storage (TTWS) is derived from Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment data. Then, the natural-driven terrestrial water storage (NTWS) is predicted from the soil moisture, precipitation, and temperature data based on an artificial neural network model. Finally, the DII is derived using the empirical (Kaplan-Meier) cumulative distribution function of the differences between the TTWS and the NTWS. The DIIs of the three sub-basins in the YRB were 1.38, −4.66, and −7.32 between 2003 and 2008, which indicated an increase in TTWS in the upper sub-basin and a reduction in the middle and lower sub-basins. According to the results, we concluded that impoundments of the TGD between 2003 and 2008 slightly alleviated the hydrological drought in the upper sub-basin and significantly aggravated the hydrological drought in the middle and lower sub-basins, which is consistent with the Palmer Drought Severity Index. This study provides a new perspective for estimating the effects of large-scale human activities on hydrological drought and a scientific decision-making basis for the managing water resources over the operation of the TGD. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Variability and Climate Change Impacts on Land Surface, Hydrological Processes and Water Management)
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16 pages, 6147 KiB  
Article
Alaska Snowpack Response to Climate Change: Statewide Snowfall Equivalent and Snowpack Water Scenarios
by Jeremy S. Littell, Stephanie A. McAfee and Gregory D. Hayward
Water 2018, 10(5), 668; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050668 - 22 May 2018
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 9120
Abstract
Climatically driven changes in snow characteristics (snowfall, snowpack, and snowmelt) will affect hydrologic and ecological systems in Alaska over the coming century, yet there exist no projections of downscaled future snow pack metrics for the state of Alaska. We updated historical and projected [...] Read more.
Climatically driven changes in snow characteristics (snowfall, snowpack, and snowmelt) will affect hydrologic and ecological systems in Alaska over the coming century, yet there exist no projections of downscaled future snow pack metrics for the state of Alaska. We updated historical and projected snow day fraction (PSF, the fraction of days with precipitation falling as snow) from McAfee et al. We developed modeled snowfall equivalent (SFE) derived from the product of snow-day fraction (PSF) and existing gridded precipitation for Alaska from Scenarios Network for Alaska and Arctic Planning (SNAP). We validated the assumption that modeled SFE approximates historical decadally averaged snow water equivalent (SWE) observations from snowcourse and Snow Telemetry (SNOTEL) sites. We present analyses of future downscaled PSF and two new products, October–March SFE and ratio of snow fall equivalent to precipitation (SFE:P) based on bias-corrected statistically downscaled projections of Coupled Model Intercomparison Project 5 (CMIP5) Global Climate Model (GCM) temperature and precipitation for the state of Alaska. We analyzed mid-century (2040–2069) and late-century (2070–2099) changes in PSF, SFE, and SFE:P relative to historical (1970–1999) mean temperature and present results for Alaska climate divisions and 12-digit Hydrologic Unit Code (HUC12) watersheds. Overall, estimated historical the SFE is reasonably well related to the observed SWE, with correlations over 0.75 in all decades, and correlations exceeding 0.9 in the 1960s and 1970s. In absolute terms, SFE is generally biased low compared to the observed SWE. PSF and SFE:P decrease universally across Alaska under both Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 4.5 and RCP 8.5 emissions scenarios, with the smallest changes for RCP 4.5 in 2040–2069 and the largest for RCP 8.5 in 2070–2099. The timing and magnitude of maximum decreases in PSF vary considerably with regional average temperature, with the largest changes in months at the beginning and end of the snow season. Mean SFE changes vary widely among climate divisions, ranging from decreases between −17 and −58% for late twenty-first century in southeast, southcentral, west coast and southwest Alaska to increases up to 21% on the North Slope. SFE increases most at highest elevations and latitudes and decreases most in coastal southern Alaska. SFE:P ratios indicate a broad switch from snow-dominated to transitional annual hydrology across most of southern Alaska by mid-century, and from transitional to rain-dominated watersheds in low elevation parts of southeast Alaska by the late twenty-first century. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Climate Change on the Hydrology and Water Quality of Snow-Dominated Mountainous Environments)
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13 pages, 1853 KiB  
Article
Performance of Two Advanced Rainwater Harvesting Systems in Washington DC
by Andrea Braga, Hayley O’Grady, Turgay Dabak and Cecilia Lane
Water 2018, 10(5), 667; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050667 - 22 May 2018
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6125
Abstract
Combined sewer overflows (CSOs) are a concern for many cities managing stormwater through combined sewer systems, including the District of Columbia (DC). Advanced rainwater harvesting (ARH) is an innovative approach to managing stormwater and has the potential to minimize CSOs and maximize water [...] Read more.
Combined sewer overflows (CSOs) are a concern for many cities managing stormwater through combined sewer systems, including the District of Columbia (DC). Advanced rainwater harvesting (ARH) is an innovative approach to managing stormwater and has the potential to minimize CSOs and maximize water conservation. ARH systems use continuous monitoring and adaptive control (CMAC) technology to store or release water from a rainwater harvesting cistern. This study assessed the efficacy of ARH systems to mitigate wet weather discharges at two firehouses in DC. Continuous monitoring data was collected over a period of three years for the systems that were installed in 2012. The collected data indicates that the systems were effective at mitigating wet weather discharges, with average event harvesting rates greater than 95%. These results suggest that if implemented on a larger scale, ARH systems would be a valuable tool in effectively managing stormwater. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Technologies and Interventions to Support Sustainable Urban Water Management)
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23 pages, 20030 KiB  
Article
Simulation of Crop Growth and Water-Saving Irrigation Scenarios for Lettuce: A Monsoon-Climate Case Study in Kampong Chhnang, Cambodia
by Pinnara Ket, Sarah Garré, Chantha Oeurng, Lyda Hok and Aurore Degré
Water 2018, 10(5), 666; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050666 - 21 May 2018
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 7185
Abstract
Setting up water-saving irrigation strategies is a major challenge farmers face, in order to adapt to climate change and to improve water-use efficiency in crop productions. Currently, the production of vegetables, such as lettuce, poses a greater challenge in managing effective water irrigation, [...] Read more.
Setting up water-saving irrigation strategies is a major challenge farmers face, in order to adapt to climate change and to improve water-use efficiency in crop productions. Currently, the production of vegetables, such as lettuce, poses a greater challenge in managing effective water irrigation, due to their sensitivity to water shortage. Crop growth models, such as AquaCrop, play an important role in exploring and providing effective irrigation strategies under various environmental conditions. The objectives of this study were (i) to parameterise the AquaCrop model for lettuce (Lactuca sativa var. crispa L.) using data from farmers’ fields in Cambodia, and (ii) to assess the impact of two distinct full and deficit irrigation scenarios in silico, using AquaCrop, under two contrasting soil types in the Cambodian climate. Field observations of biomass and canopy cover during the growing season of 2017 were used to adjust the crop growth parameters of the model. The results confirmed the ability of AquaCrop to correctly simulate lettuce growth. The irrigation scenario analysis suggested that deficit irrigation is a “silver bullet” water saving strategy that can save 20–60% of water compared to full irrigation scenarios in the conditions of this study. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Management for Sustainable Food Production)
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16 pages, 2668 KiB  
Article
Simulation of Soil Water Content in Mediterranean Ecosystems by Biogeochemical and Remote Sensing Models
by Piero Battista, Marta Chiesi, Luca Fibbi, Lorenzo Gardin, Bernardo Rapi, Stefano Romanelli, Maurizio Romani, Francesco Sabatini, Elena Salerni, Claudia Perini and Fabio Maselli
Water 2018, 10(5), 665; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050665 - 19 May 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4690
Abstract
The current study assesses the potential of two modeling approaches to simulate the daily site water budget in Mediterranean ecosystems. Both models utilize a simplified one-bucket approach but are fed with different drivers. The first model, BIOME-BGC, simulates all main biogeochemical fluxes based [...] Read more.
The current study assesses the potential of two modeling approaches to simulate the daily site water budget in Mediterranean ecosystems. Both models utilize a simplified one-bucket approach but are fed with different drivers. The first model, BIOME-BGC, simulates all main biogeochemical fluxes based on conventional meteorological and ancillary data, while the second uses evapotranspiration estimates derived from the combination of meteorological data and satellite normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) images. The two models were tested for three Italian sites which are characterized by different vegetation types and ecoclimatic conditions: (i) low mountain coniferous forest; (ii) hilly deciduous forest; (iii) urban grassland. The soil water balance simulated by the two models was evaluated through comparison with daily measurements of soil water content (SWC) taken during a growing season. Satisfactory results were obtained in all cases by both approaches; the SWC estimates are significantly correlated with the measurements (correlation coefficient, r, higher than 0.74), and the mean errors are lower than 0.079 cm3 cm−3. The second model, however, generally shows a higher accuracy, which is dependent on the quality of the NDVI data utilized (r higher than 0.79 and errors lower than 0.059 cm3 cm−3). The study therefore provides useful indications for the application of these and similar simulation methods in different environmental situations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring and Predicting Soil Moisture and Drought Conditions)
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17 pages, 19114 KiB  
Article
The Water–Energy–Food Nexus: A Fuzzy-Cognitive Mapping Approach to Support Nexus-Compliant Policies in Andalusia (Spain)
by Pilar Martinez, Maria Blanco and Bente Castro-Campos
Water 2018, 10(5), 664; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050664 - 19 May 2018
Cited by 58 | Viewed by 10476
Abstract
Water, energy and food are essential resources for economic development and social well-being. Framing integrated policies that improve their efficient use requires understanding the interdependencies in the water–energy–food (WEF) nexus. Stakeholder involvement in this process is crucial to represent multiple perspectives, ensure political [...] Read more.
Water, energy and food are essential resources for economic development and social well-being. Framing integrated policies that improve their efficient use requires understanding the interdependencies in the water–energy–food (WEF) nexus. Stakeholder involvement in this process is crucial to represent multiple perspectives, ensure political legitimacy and promote dialogue. In this research, we develop and apply a participatory modelling approach to identify the main interlinkages within the WEF nexus in Andalusia, as a starting point to developing a system dynamic model at a later stage. The application of fuzzy cognitive mapping enabled us to gain knowledge on the WEF nexus according to opinions from 14 decision-makers, as well as contributing to raising awareness and building consensus among stakeholders. Results show that climate change and water availability are key drivers in the WEF nexus in Andalusia. Other variables with significant interlinkages within the WEF nexus are food production, irrigated agriculture, energy cost, socio-economic factors, irrigation water use, environmental conservation, and farm performance indicators. The scenario analysis reveals the interdependencies among nexus sectors and the existence of unanticipated effects when changing variables in the system, which need to be considered to design integrated policies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovation Issues in Water, Agriculture and Food)
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12 pages, 2724 KiB  
Article
TWI Computations and Topographic Analysis of Depression-Dominated Surfaces
by Kendall Grimm, Mohsen Tahmasebi Nasab and Xuefeng Chu
Water 2018, 10(5), 663; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050663 - 19 May 2018
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4980
Abstract
The topographic wetness index (TWI) has been widely used for determining the potential of each digital elevation model (DEM) grid to develop a saturated condition, which allows for the investigation of topographic control on the hydrologic response of a watershed. Many studies have [...] Read more.
The topographic wetness index (TWI) has been widely used for determining the potential of each digital elevation model (DEM) grid to develop a saturated condition, which allows for the investigation of topographic control on the hydrologic response of a watershed. Many studies have evaluated TWI, its components, and the impacts of DEM resolution on its computation. However, the majority of the studies are concerned with typical dendritic watersheds, and the effectiveness of TWI computations for depression-dominated areas has been rarely evaluated. The objectives of this study are (1) to develop a modified TWI computation procedure for depression-dominated areas, (2) to examine the differences between the new and existing TWI computation procedures using different DEMs, and (3) to assess the impact of DEM resolution on the new TWI procedure. In particular, a bathymetry survey was conducted for a study area in the Prairie Pothole Region (PPR), and the DEM representing the actual surface topography was created. The statistical analyses of TWI highlighted a two-hump pattern for the depression-dominated surface, whereas a one-hump pattern was observed for the dendritic surface. It was observed that depressional DEM grids accounted for higher values of TWI than other grids. It was demonstrated that a filled DEM led to misleading quantity and distribution of TWI for depression-dominated landscapes. The modified TWI computation procedure proposed in this study can also be applied to other depression-dominated areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Hydrology)
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11 pages, 806 KiB  
Article
Research on Fuzzy Cooperative Game Model of Allocation of Pollution Discharge Rights
by Xiaoyu Huang, Xiaohong Chen and Ping Huang
Water 2018, 10(5), 662; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050662 - 19 May 2018
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3916
Abstract
The allocation of pollution rights is significant to the economic development of a region, which determines the industrial structure of the region in another way. This study established an allocation model based on fuzzy coalition game theory. Formation of fuzzy coalitions between many [...] Read more.
The allocation of pollution rights is significant to the economic development of a region, which determines the industrial structure of the region in another way. This study established an allocation model based on fuzzy coalition game theory. Formation of fuzzy coalitions between many producers in a region and reallocation of pollution discharge rights in the region through these coalitions was used to increase the total production value of the region while total pollution discharge amount is constant. At the same time, the fuzzy Shapley value method was used to allocate benefits obtained from the cooperation to the participants in various coalitions. This model was validated by its application in the case of three production bases near the Shizi channel in Dongguan city for reallocation of pollution discharge rights. Results showed that this model could increase the coalition benefits of the three production bases in this region, which observed increases of 4.28%, 7.74%, and 13.98%, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality: A Component of the Water-Energy-Food Nexus)
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26 pages, 12769 KiB  
Article
Stream Health Evaluation Using a Combined Approach of Multi-Metric Chemical Pollution and Biological Integrity Models
by Usman Atique and Kwang-Guk An
Water 2018, 10(5), 661; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050661 - 18 May 2018
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 6763
Abstract
Bouchung Stream is a large tributary of the Geum River watershed that is simultaneously affected by wastewater treatment plant effluents and agricultural activities in the watershed area. The focal subject was to diagnose the chemical and biological health of the temperate stream by [...] Read more.
Bouchung Stream is a large tributary of the Geum River watershed that is simultaneously affected by wastewater treatment plant effluents and agricultural activities in the watershed area. The focal subject was to diagnose the chemical and biological health of the temperate stream by using a combined approach of the multi-metric water pollution index (WPI) and the index of biological integrity (IBIKR), using datasets from 2008–2014. Water chemistry analyses indicated seasonal and inter-annual variations mainly linked to the intensity of monsoon rainfall in the watershed, potentially causing the availability of agricultural runoff water. The main events of phosphorus inflow and nitrogen dilutions occurred during July–August. Temporal and spatial heterogeneities were observed and were largely recognizable due to nutrient enrichment and organic matter intensification. Chlorophyll showed weak linear relation to total phosphorus (R2 = 0.17) but no relation to total nitrogen (p > 0.05). Fish compositions analyzed as trophic/tolerance guilds in relation to water chemistry showed visible decline and modifications. Average WPI site scores ranged from 33–23, indicating an excellent upstream to fair downstream water quality status. Correspondingly, IBIKR scores ranged between 38–28 approximating with WPI site classification, as well as both indices showed higher regression relation (R2 = 0.90). Fish guild analyses revealed tolerant and omnivore species dominating the downstream, while sensitive and insectivores depleting in approximation with changing water chemistry and was confirmed by the principal component analysis. In addition, the fish guilds meticulously responded to phosphorus inflows. In conclusion, overall stream health and water chemistry analyses indicated continuous chemical and biological degradation influencing the trophic and tolerance fish guilds. Moreover, the combined application approach of WPI and IBIKR could help in better understanding the chemical and biological mechanisms in rivers and streams. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Water Quality and Contamination)
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18 pages, 4381 KiB  
Article
Assessment of Key Environmental Factors Influencing the Sedimentation and Aggregation Behavior of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles in Aquatic Environment
by Rizwan Khan, Muhammad Ali Inam, Saba Zam Zam, Du Ri Park and Ick Tae Yeom
Water 2018, 10(5), 660; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050660 - 18 May 2018
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 7206
Abstract
Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) are among the most widely used engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) in various commercial sectors to achieve both social and economic benefits. The post-use release of these NPs to the environment is inevitable, and may pose threat to the human [...] Read more.
Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) are among the most widely used engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) in various commercial sectors to achieve both social and economic benefits. The post-use release of these NPs to the environment is inevitable, and may pose threat to the human and eco-system. In the present study, we investigated the influence of single and multiple environmental factors on sedimentation behavior of ZnO NPs. The fractional-factorial method based on Taguchi orthogonal array (OA) L27(313) design matrix was used for systematic investigation on the contribution and significance of multiple factors and their interactions. The result of single-factor showed that the ZnO NPs were unstable at or near pHzpc, with high electrolyte concentration; however, the adsorption of natural organic matter (NOM) i.e., humic acid, salicylic acid, and citric acid reverses the surface charge and enhanced NP stability. The Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) analysis confirms the organic capping ligands on the NP surface. Moreover, the matrix result of analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that electrolyte concentration and type, and NOM concentration were the most significant factors (p < 0.001) in promoting and influencing aggregation, while the interaction between the factors was also found insignificant. In addition, the result of aggregation kinetics and environmental water samples indicated that the mobility of ENPs may vary substantially in an environment with complex and heterogeneous matrices. This study may contribute to better understanding and prediction of the sedimentation behavior and fate of ZnO NPs in aqueous environments, to facilitate their sustainable use in products and process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Water Quality and Contamination)
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24 pages, 7333 KiB  
Article
Satellite-Based, Multi-Indices for Evaluation of Agricultural Droughts in a Highly Dynamic Tropical Catchment, Central Vietnam
by Tien Le Thuy Du, Duong Du Bui, Minh Duc Nguyen and Hyongki Lee
Water 2018, 10(5), 659; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050659 - 18 May 2018
Cited by 56 | Viewed by 8329
Abstract
Characterization of droughts using satellite-based data and indices in a steep, highly dynamic tropical catchment, like Vu Gia Thu Bon, which is the most important basin in central Vietnam, has remained a challenge for many years. This study examined the six widely used [...] Read more.
Characterization of droughts using satellite-based data and indices in a steep, highly dynamic tropical catchment, like Vu Gia Thu Bon, which is the most important basin in central Vietnam, has remained a challenge for many years. This study examined the six widely used vegetation indices (VIs) to effectively monitor droughts that are based on their sensitivity with precipitation, soil moisture, and their linkage with the impacts on agricultural crop production and forest fires. Six VIs representing the four main groups, including greenness-based VIs (Vegetation Condition Index), water-based VIs (Normalized Difference Water Index, Land Surface Water Index), temperature-based VIs (Temperature Condition Index), and combined VIs (Vegetation Health Index, Normalized Difference Drought Index) were tested using MODIS data from January 2001 to December 2016 with the support of cloud-based Google Earth Engine computational platform. Results showed that droughts happened almost every year, but with different intensity. Vegetation stress was found to be mainly attributed to precipitation in the rice paddy fields and to temperature in the forest areas. Findings revealed that combined vegetation indices were more sensitive drought indicators in the basin, whereas their performance was different by vegetation type. In the rice paddy fields, NDDI was more sensitive to precipitation than other indices; it better captured droughts and their impacts on crop yield. In the forest areas, VHI was more sensitive to temperature, and thus had better performance than other VIs. Accordingly, NDDI and VHI were recommended for monitoring droughts in the agricultural and forest lands, respectively. The findings from this study are crucial to map drought risks and prepare an effective mitigation plan for the basin. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Remote Sensing and GIS in Hydrology)
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13 pages, 1089 KiB  
Article
Measuring the Value of Farmland-Elevating Engineering in the Reservoir Area of a Key Water Conservancy Project in China
by Jiyong Ding, Wujuan Zhai and Leichuang Hu
Water 2018, 10(5), 658; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050658 - 18 May 2018
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3314
Abstract
With the development and construction of key water conservancy projects, many problems such as population migration in reservoir areas have become increasingly grave in China. The implementation of farmland-elevating engineering has become an effective way to reduce the loss of cultivated land, prevent [...] Read more.
With the development and construction of key water conservancy projects, many problems such as population migration in reservoir areas have become increasingly grave in China. The implementation of farmland-elevating engineering has become an effective way to reduce the loss of cultivated land, prevent soil erosion, and ensure food security and social stability. On the basis of the key technical analysis of farmland-elevating engineering, this paper constructed a value system of farmland-elevating engineering from aspects of social value, ecological value, and economic value and established corresponding measurement models, respectively. Taking a key water conservancy project in Jiangxi province as an example, this paper measures the value of farmland-elevating engineering implemented in this project. The results show that the implementation of farmland-elevating engineering can produce great value. This study aims to provide reliable references for the decision-making regarding farmland-elevating engineering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Water, Agriculture and Aquaculture)
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24 pages, 6902 KiB  
Article
Evaluation and Bias Correction of Satellite-Based Rainfall Estimates for Modelling Flash Floods over the Mediterranean region: Application to Karpuz River Basin, Turkey
by Mohamed Saber and Koray K. Yilmaz
Water 2018, 10(5), 657; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050657 - 18 May 2018
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 6143
Abstract
This study investigates the utility of satellite-based rainfall estimates in simulating flash floods in Karpuz River Basin, Turkey, characterized by limited rain gauge network. Global Satellite Mapping of Precipitation (GSMaP) product was evaluated with the rain gauge network at daily and monthly time-scales [...] Read more.
This study investigates the utility of satellite-based rainfall estimates in simulating flash floods in Karpuz River Basin, Turkey, characterized by limited rain gauge network. Global Satellite Mapping of Precipitation (GSMaP) product was evaluated with the rain gauge network at daily and monthly time-scales considering seasonality, elevation zones, extreme events and rainfall intensity thresholds. Statistical analysis indicated that GSMaP shows acceptable linear correlation coefficient with rain gauges, however, suffers from significant underestimation bias. Statistical measures exhibited a remarkable deterioration with increasing elevation-following a linear relationship; for example, percent bias was found to increase by a rate of 11.7% with every 400 m interval. A multiplicative bias correction scheme was devised, and Hydrological River Basin Environmental Assessment Model (Hydro-BEAM) was implemented to simulate flash floods driven by the uncorrected/corrected GSMaP data. Analysis of intensity thresholds revealed that appropriate threshold selection is critically important for the bias correction procedure. The hydrological model was calibrated for flash flood events during October–December 2007 and 2012 and validated during October–December, 2009 and 2010. Flash floods simulations were improved by the local bias correction procedure applied to the GSMaP data, but the degree of improvement varied from one period to another. The results of the study indicate that bias factors incorporating multiple variables such as extreme events and elevation variability have the potential to further improve flood simulations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Hydrology)
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19 pages, 6031 KiB  
Article
Temperature Rise of Seawater Simulation under the Influence of Sediment-Water Heat Exchange
by Yaqiong Guo and Jinrong Ma
Water 2018, 10(5), 656; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050656 - 18 May 2018
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4506
Abstract
Alternating inundation and exposure of large tidal flats regions suggest that differences in thermodynamic properties of sediment and water cause an obvious heat exchange between the tidal sediment and seawater. Due to the influence of these sediment-water heat exchanges, the temperature of seawater [...] Read more.
Alternating inundation and exposure of large tidal flats regions suggest that differences in thermodynamic properties of sediment and water cause an obvious heat exchange between the tidal sediment and seawater. Due to the influence of these sediment-water heat exchanges, the temperature of seawater changes dramatically in coastal areas. To understand and assess the effect of these heat exchanges on seawater temperature, a temperature rise numerical model is adopted to describe the influence of sediment-water heat exchange. The heat exchange is determined mainly by the temperature difference between the sediment and seawater. Thus, a sediment temperature model is developed to predict the temperature of tidal sediment and sediment-water heat flux under the alternating inundated or exposed condition. The surface sediment temperature, as the surface boundary condition of the model, is calculated by the heat balance at the surface, including solar radiation, atmospheric radiation, flat back radiation, latent, and sensible heat fluxes, soil heat flux, and sediment-water heat flux. The collected measured data of sediment temperature are used to verify the accuracy of the sediment temperature model. Based on this, the predicted sediment-water heat flux is provide to the temperature rise model. In the study site, the tidal flat of about 15.8 km2 is adopted in the sediment temperature model, and the simulated time is from 11 to 31 May 2017 to meet the collected climate data. The results show that a clear temperature rise water area comes out near the shore considering the heat flux. In warmer season, the maximum water temperature rise is about 2 °C in the local area, and in the envelope area of a 1 °C temperature rise can reach 2.8 km2. Certainly, the influence will be stronger after the simulated time moves into the middle of summer with stronger solar radiation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Water Quality and Contamination)
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16 pages, 3660 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of a UAV-Assisted Autonomous Water Sampling
by Cengiz Koparan, Ali Bulent Koc, Charles V. Privette, Calvin B. Sawyer and Julia L. Sharp
Water 2018, 10(5), 655; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050655 - 18 May 2018
Cited by 62 | Viewed by 12537
Abstract
Water quality assessment programs for the management of water resources require the collection of water samples for physical, chemical, and biological analyses. Lack of personnel, accessibility of water bodies, and time constraints, especially after natural disasters and emergencies, are some of the challenges [...] Read more.
Water quality assessment programs for the management of water resources require the collection of water samples for physical, chemical, and biological analyses. Lack of personnel, accessibility of water bodies, and time constraints, especially after natural disasters and emergencies, are some of the challenges of water sampling. To overcome these challenges, a custom-made thief-style water sampling mechanism was developed and mounted on a multirotor unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) for autonomous water sampling. The payload capacity and endurance of the UAV were determined using an indoor test station. The UAV was equipped with floatation, and electronic components were coated to prevent water damage in the event of a forced landing or for sample collection. Water samples from a 1.1 ha pond were collected with the developed UAV-assisted water sampling system and traditional manual methods. Dissolved oxygen (DO), electrical conductivity (EC), pH, temperature and chloride measurements were made on samples collected with both UAV-assisted and manual methods and compared. Percent differences between the two sampling methods for DO, EC, pH, and temperature were minimal except for chloride level. Percent differences between the two sampling methods for DO, EC, pH, and temperature measurements were 3.6%, 2.3%, 0.76%, and 0.03%, respectively. Measured chloride levels for the manual and UAV-assisted sampling methods were 3.97 and 5.46 mg/L. UAV-assisted water sampling may prove faster and safer than manual water sampling from large surface waters and from difficult to access water bodies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Water Quality and Contamination)
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11 pages, 794 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of the Water Allocation and Delivery Performance of Jiamakou Irrigation Scheme, Shanxi, China
by Yumiao Fan, Zhanyi Gao, Shaoli Wang, Haorui Chen and Jing Liu
Water 2018, 10(5), 654; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050654 - 18 May 2018
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4776
Abstract
Irrigation performance assessment is an important step in ensuring sustainable agricultural development and improving the capacity of irrigation water management. In this paper, we examined irrigation water management in the Jiamakou Irrigation Scheme in the province of Shanxi (China) using four typical indicators, [...] Read more.
Irrigation performance assessment is an important step in ensuring sustainable agricultural development and improving the capacity of irrigation water management. In this paper, we examined irrigation water management in the Jiamakou Irrigation Scheme in the province of Shanxi (China) using four typical indicators, namely adequacy, efficiency, dependability, and equity. These indicators were calculated both globally and by grouping the data according to different irrigation processes (water allocation and water delivery). Results show that water was poorly allocated, and crop water requirements calculated through the FAO56 Penman-Monteith method was not met timely by scheduled water. They indicate that the overall performance of the scheme was relatively poor, owing to dismal water allocation. Nevertheless, water delivery performance was good, indicating that the scheme was able to deliver adequate and dependable water in an equitable and efficient manner. Our findings suggest that farmers should be trained in allocating irrigation water. The study provides insights into the current behavior of the irrigation scheme and may be used as a base for improvement of irrigation performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Water Resources Management, Policy and Governance)
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15 pages, 5683 KiB  
Article
Subpixel Surface Water Extraction (SSWE) Using Landsat 8 OLI Data
by Longhai Xiong, Ruru Deng, Jun Li, Xulong Liu, Yan Qin, Yeheng Liang and Yingfei Liu
Water 2018, 10(5), 653; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050653 - 18 May 2018
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 5744
Abstract
Surface water extraction from remote sensing imagery has been a very active research topic in recent years, as this problem is essential for monitoring the environment, ecosystems, climate, and so on. In order to extract surface water accurately, we developed a new subpixel [...] Read more.
Surface water extraction from remote sensing imagery has been a very active research topic in recent years, as this problem is essential for monitoring the environment, ecosystems, climate, and so on. In order to extract surface water accurately, we developed a new subpixel surface water extraction (SSWE) method, which includes three steps. Firstly, a new all bands water index (ABWI) was developed for pure water pixel extraction. Secondly, the mixed water–land pixels were extracted by a morphological dilation operation. Thirdly, the water fractions within the mixed water–land pixels were estimated by local multiple endmember spectral mixture analysis (MESMA). The proposed ABWI and SSWE have been evaluated by using three data sets collected by the Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI). Results show that the accuracy of ABWI is higher than that of the normalized difference water index (NDWI). According to the obtained surface water maps, the proposed SSWE shows better performance than the automated subpixel water mapping method (ASWM). Specifically, the root-mean-square error (RMSE) obtained by our SSWE for the data sets considered in experiments is 0.117, which is better than that obtained by ASWM (0.143). In conclusion, the SSWE can be used to extract surface water with high accuracy, especially in areas with optically complex aquatic environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Water Resources Management, Policy and Governance)
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14 pages, 2449 KiB  
Article
On Strong Nearshore Wind-Induced Currents in Flow-Through Gulfs: Variations on a Theme by Csanady
by Georgios M. Horsch and Nikolaos Th. Fourniotis
Water 2018, 10(5), 652; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050652 - 17 May 2018
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2941
Abstract
Csanady’s (1973) model, used to explain the development of strong, wind-induced nearshore currents in long lakes, has been extended to explain the same phenomenon in flow-through semi-enclosed gulfs. As in the original theory, it is predicted that the depth-averaged velocities move with the [...] Read more.
Csanady’s (1973) model, used to explain the development of strong, wind-induced nearshore currents in long lakes, has been extended to explain the same phenomenon in flow-through semi-enclosed gulfs. As in the original theory, it is predicted that the depth-averaged velocities move with the wind in regions shallower than the characteristic depth and upwind in deeper parts of the basin. The characteristic depth in the modified theory, however, is shown to be larger than the characteristic depth of the original theory, which is the basin mean depth, by a parameter λ, which can be calculated using the wind stress, the cross-section area and the volumetric inflow into the gulf. The theory is further used to examine in detail the scaling of the flow and identify the dimensional parameters underlying the formulation of the Csanady model. By expanding in an appropriately-defined inverse, Rossby number, which can be made arbitrarily large for small times, it is shown that under the influence of the Coriolis force, the free surface assumes a characteristic S-like shape and the shorewise volume flux an M-like shape. It is suggested that the shorewise flux might be of interest in environmental applications. The predictions of both variations of the original model of Csanady have been illustrated by numerical simulations, in pertinent idealized geometries, and have been also used to explain salient features of the wind-induced circulation in the Gulf of Patras in Western Greece. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Hydraulics and Hydrodynamics)
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23 pages, 435 KiB  
Review
Progress in Understanding the Mechanism of CrVI Removal in Fe0-Based Filtration Systems
by Marius Gheju
Water 2018, 10(5), 651; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050651 - 17 May 2018
Cited by 50 | Viewed by 4846
Abstract
Hexavalent chromium (CrVI) compounds are used in a variety of industrial applications and, as a result, large quantities of CrVI have been released into the environment due to inadequate precautionary measures or accidental releases. CrVI is highly toxic to [...] Read more.
Hexavalent chromium (CrVI) compounds are used in a variety of industrial applications and, as a result, large quantities of CrVI have been released into the environment due to inadequate precautionary measures or accidental releases. CrVI is highly toxic to most living organisms and a known human carcinogen by inhalation route of exposure. Another major issue of concern about CrVI compounds is their high mobility, which easily leads to contamination of surface waters, soil, and ground waters. In recent years, attention has been focused on the use of metallic iron (Fe0) for the abatement of CrVI polluted waters. Despite a great deal of research, the mechanisms behind the efficient aqueous CrVI removal in the presence of Fe0 (Fe0/H2O systems) remain deeply controversial. The introduction of the Fe0-based filtration technology, at the beginning of 1990s, was coupled with the broad consensus that direct reduction of CrVI by Fe0 was followed by co-precipitation of resulted cations (CrIII, FeIII). This view is still the dominant removal mechanism (reductive-precipitation mechanism) within the Fe0 remediation industry. An overview on the literature on the Cr geochemistry suggests that the reductive-precipitation theory should never have been adopted. Moreover, recent investigations recalling that a Fe0/H2O system is an ion-selective one in which electrostatic interactions are of primordial importance is generally overlooked. The present work critically reviews existing knowledge on the Fe0/CrVI/H2O and CrVI/H2O systems, and clearly demonstrates that direct reduction with Fe0 followed by precipitation is not acceptable, under environmental relevant conditions, as the sole/main mechanism of CrVI removal in the presence of Fe0. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Filters in Drinking Water Treatment)
18 pages, 34662 KiB  
Article
Physical Simulation of Strata Failure and Its Impact on Overlying Unconsolidated Aquifer at Various Mining Depths
by Shuyuan Xu, Yongbo Zhang, Hong Shi, Kai Wang, Yipeng Geng and Junfeng Chen
Water 2018, 10(5), 650; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050650 - 17 May 2018
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4215
Abstract
Underground mining severely lowers the water table and worsens the ecological environment. To determine the mechanism influencing drawdown in unconsolidated aquifers induced by deep mining combined with overburden movement, with a view to environmental protection, physical simulations for three different depths were designed [...] Read more.
Underground mining severely lowers the water table and worsens the ecological environment. To determine the mechanism influencing drawdown in unconsolidated aquifers induced by deep mining combined with overburden movement, with a view to environmental protection, physical simulations for three different depths were designed to investigate and contrast deformation and fracture distribution characteristics at diverse depths after mining. The impacts on overlying unconsolidated aquifers were then analyzed by monitoring overburden movement and ground water level data, and the deformation limit was estimated. Modeling results indicated that coal mining had different impacts on the overlying unconsolidated aquifer via various mechanisms of groundwater level reduction. The aquifer outside the fractured water-conducting zone could be affected by coal mining, and the water tables dropped rapidly. The failure and the deformation features of the aquitard floor were the key to revealing the mechanism of groundwater depletion in deep mining. The effects on aquitard decreased as the distance from the working face increased. A relationship between the strata deformation and the drawdown rate was established; that is, the rate of decline of the groundwater level did not accelerate until the maximum subsidence of the aquitard floor exceeded approximately 0.9 m, or the subsidence-bending area of the aquitard floor exceeded approximately 156 m2. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Hydrology)
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12 pages, 1800 KiB  
Article
Potential Impact of In-Situ Oil Shale Exploitation on Aquifer System
by Shuya Hu, Changlai Xiao, Xue Jiang and Xiujuan Liang
Water 2018, 10(5), 649; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050649 - 17 May 2018
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4014
Abstract
The effects of heat on physical and hydraulic properties of oil shale were investigated. The porosity and water absorption of oil shale increased with increasing pyrolysis temperature. The porosity increased by 19.048% and water absorption increased by 0.76% when oil shale was heated [...] Read more.
The effects of heat on physical and hydraulic properties of oil shale were investigated. The porosity and water absorption of oil shale increased with increasing pyrolysis temperature. The porosity increased by 19.048% and water absorption increased by 0.76% when oil shale was heated to 500 °C. Thus, originally impermeable oil shale was converted to a permeable rock formation, facilitating interactions between surrounding groundwater and oil. Heated oil shale was immersed in water, which showed strong alkaline properties. The content of Ca2+ remained stable and a slight decrease in SO42− content was observed. Hydrocarbon content in the water samples reached maximum concentration within three days. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Contamination and Remediation)
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14 pages, 2332 KiB  
Article
Removal of Pb2+ from Water by Synthesized Tannin Resins from Invasive South African Trees
by Bamidele J. Okoli, Patience M. Shilowa, Gabriel O. Anyanwu and Johannes S. Modise
Water 2018, 10(5), 648; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050648 - 17 May 2018
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4693
Abstract
Contamination of water by Pb 2 + and the threat of invasive vegetation affects the quality and quantity of water accessible to all life forms and has become a primary concern to South Africa and the world at large. This paper synthesized, characterized, [...] Read more.
Contamination of water by Pb 2 + and the threat of invasive vegetation affects the quality and quantity of water accessible to all life forms and has become a primary concern to South Africa and the world at large. This paper synthesized, characterized, and evaluated the resins from tannin-rich invasive Acacia species as an environmentally benign Pb 2 + adsorbent. The analysis of the pore volume and surface area of the resins reveals a small pore dimension of 9 × 10−3 cc/g and large surface area (2.31–8.65 m2/g), presenting suitable physical parameters for adsorption of Pb 2 + . Langmuir model offers the best correlation data at pH 6 with maximum monolayer coverage capacity of 189.30, 105.70 and 98.82 mg/g for silver, black and green wattle tannin resins in aqueous solutions, respectively. The kinetic data suitably fits into a pseudo-second-order model, with the Dubinin–Radushkevich adsorption energy (E) ≤ 7.07 KJ/mol and intra-particle diffusion model confirming an associated physisorption process within the bio-sorption system. The thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) data of the resins were informative of the high thermal stability and chelating functionality such as -OH and -NH2 responsible for the removal of Pb 2 + . All the resins showed good adsorption characteristics while silver wattle tannin resin has the best adsorption capacity compared to black and green wattle tannin resins. This study provides a prototype adsorbent from invasive plants for the removal of Pb 2 + in water. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Water Quality and Contamination)
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17 pages, 5266 KiB  
Article
Prediction of Typhoon-Induced Flood Flows at Ungauged Catchments Using Simple Regression and Generalized Estimating Equation Approaches
by Hyosang Lee, Neil McIntyre, Joungyoun Kim, Sunggu Kim and Hojin Lee
Water 2018, 10(5), 647; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050647 - 16 May 2018
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3605
Abstract
Typhoons are the main type of natural disaster in Korea, and accurately predicting typhoon-induced flood flows at gauged and ungauged locations remains an important challenge. Flood flows caused by six typhoons since 2002 (typhoons Rusa, Maemi, Nari, Dienmu, Kompasu and Bolaven) are modeled [...] Read more.
Typhoons are the main type of natural disaster in Korea, and accurately predicting typhoon-induced flood flows at gauged and ungauged locations remains an important challenge. Flood flows caused by six typhoons since 2002 (typhoons Rusa, Maemi, Nari, Dienmu, Kompasu and Bolaven) are modeled at the outlets of 24 Geum River catchments using the Probability Distributed Moisture model. The Monte Carlo Analysis Toolbox is applied with the Nash Sutcliffe Efficiency as the criterion for model parameter estimation. Linear regression relationships between the parameters of the Probability Distributed Moisture model and catchment characteristics are developed for the purpose of generalizing the parameter estimates to ungauged locations. These generalized parameter estimates are tested in terms of ability to predict the flood hydrographs over the 24 catchments using a leave-one-out validation approach. We then test the hypothesis that a more complex generalization approach, the Generalized Estimating Equation, which includes properties of the typhoons as well as catchment characteristics as predictors of PDM model parameters, will provide more accurate predictions. The results show that the predictions of Generalized Estimating Equation are comparable to those of the simpler, conventional regression. The simpler approach is therefore recommended for practical applications; however, further refinements of the Generalized Estimating Equation approach may be explored. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Hydrology)
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17 pages, 4966 KiB  
Article
Recognizing the Relationship between Spatial Patterns in Water Quality and Land-Use/Cover Types: A Case Study of the Jinghe Oasis in Xinjiang, China
by Fei Zhang, Juan Wang and Xiaoping Wang
Water 2018, 10(5), 646; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050646 - 16 May 2018
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 4369
Abstract
To understand the relationship between spatial water quality patterns and changes in land-use/cover types in the Jinghe Oasis, 47 water sampling sites measured in May and October 2015 were divided into six cluster layers using the self-organizing map method, which is based on [...] Read more.
To understand the relationship between spatial water quality patterns and changes in land-use/cover types in the Jinghe Oasis, 47 water sampling sites measured in May and October 2015 were divided into six cluster layers using the self-organizing map method, which is based on non-hierarchical k-means classification. The water quality indices included the chemical oxygen demand (COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD), suspended solids (SS), total phosphorus (TP), total nitrogen (TN), ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N), chromaticity (SD), and turbidity (NUT). Data was also collected on the changes in the farmland, forest–grassland, water body, salinized land, and other land types during the wet and dry seasons. Then, we combined these data with the classification results of the GF-1 remote sensing satellite data obtained in May and October 2015 and analyzed the influences of land-use/cover type on water quality for different layers and seasons. The results indicate that Clusters 1 to 3 included monitoring samples from the wet season (May 2015), whereas Clusters 4 to 6 included monitoring samples from the dry season (October 2015). In general, the COD, SS, NUT, TN, and NH3-N values were high around the Ganjia Lake Haloxylon natural conservation area in the southern Ebinur Lake region, east of Ebinur Lake, and around the Kuitun River during the wet season. The SD values around these areas were high. Moreover, high BOD and TP values were mainly concentrated around the Ganjia Lake Haloxylon natural conservation area, as well as the Kuitun River, during the dry season. In the discussion on the relationship between the different water quality parameters and land-use/cover type changes, we determined that farmland, forest–grassland, and salinized land significantly influenced the water quality parameters in the Jinghe Oasis. In addition, the influences of various land-use/cover types on the water quality parameters in the research zone during the different seasons exhibited the following descending order of magnitude: farmland → forest–grassland → salinized land → water body → others. Moreover, their influences were lower during the wet season than the dry season. In conclusion, developing research on the relationship between the spatial framework of the water quality in the Jinghe Oasis and land-use/cover type changes is significant for the time sequence distribution of water quality in arid regions from both theoretical and practical perspectives. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Water Quality and Contamination)
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19 pages, 6614 KiB  
Article
Impact of the Storm Sewer Network Complexity on Flood Simulations According to the Stroke Scaling Method
by Qiqi Yang, Qiang Dai, Dawei Han, Xuehong Zhu and Shuliang Zhang
Water 2018, 10(5), 645; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050645 - 16 May 2018
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4222
Abstract
For urban watersheds, the storm sewer network provides indispensable data for flood modeling but often needs to be simplified to balance the conflict between the large amount of data and current computing power. The sensitivity of a flood simulation to the data precision [...] Read more.
For urban watersheds, the storm sewer network provides indispensable data for flood modeling but often needs to be simplified to balance the conflict between the large amount of data and current computing power. The sensitivity of a flood simulation to the data precision of a storm sewer network needs to be explored to develop reasonable generalization strategies. In this study, the impact of using the stroke scaling method to generalize a storm sewer network on a flood simulation was analyzed in terms of the total inflow of the outfalls and flood results. The results of the three study basins showed that different complexities of a sewer network did not have a significant effect on the outfall’s total inflow for an area with a single drainage system but did for an area with multiple drainage systems. In addition, serious flooding was mainly distributed at the backbone pipes, which can be identified with the simplified sewer network. Several effective generalization strategies were developed for sewer networks that consider the distribution characteristics of the drainage system and application requirements. This study is theoretically important for better understanding the data sensitivity of flood modeling and simulation and practically important for improving the modeling efficiency and the accuracy of urban flood simulation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Urban Water Management)
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16 pages, 1914 KiB  
Article
Long-Term Monitoring of a Surface Flow Constructed Wetland Treating Agricultural Drainage Water in Northern Italy
by Stevo Lavrnić, Ilaria Braschi, Stefano Anconelli, Sonia Blasioli, Domenico Solimando, Paolo Mannini and Attilio Toscano
Water 2018, 10(5), 644; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050644 - 16 May 2018
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 5631
Abstract
Agricultural drainage water that has seeped into tile drainage systems can cause nitrogen and phosphorus pollution of the surface water bodies. Constructed wetlands (CWs) can help mitigate the effects of agricultural non-point sources of pollution and remove different pollutants from tile drainage water. [...] Read more.
Agricultural drainage water that has seeped into tile drainage systems can cause nitrogen and phosphorus pollution of the surface water bodies. Constructed wetlands (CWs) can help mitigate the effects of agricultural non-point sources of pollution and remove different pollutants from tile drainage water. In this study, hydrological and water quality data of a Northern Italian CW that has been treating agricultural drainage water since 2000 were considered to assess its ability to mitigate nitrogen and phosphorus pollution. The effects of such long-term operation on the nutrients and heavy metals that eventually accumulate in CW plants and sediments were also analysed. Since 2003, the CW has received different inflows with different nutrient loads due to several operation modes. However, on average, the outflow load has been 50% lower than the inflow one; thus, it can be said that the system has proved itself to be a viable option for tile drainage water treatment. It was found that the concentration of nitrogen and phosphorus in the plant tissues varied, whereas the nitrogen content of the soil increased more than 2.5 times. Heavy metals were found accumulated in the plant root systems and uniformly distributed throughout a 60 cm soil profile at levels suitable for private and public green areas, according to the Italian law Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wetlands for the Treatment of Agricultural Drainage Water)
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21 pages, 2571 KiB  
Article
Application of Microbial Technology Used in Bioremediation of Urban Polluted River: A Case Study of Chengnan River, China
by Hong Gao, Yuebo Xie, Sarfraz Hashim, Alamgir Akhtar Khan, Xiaolin Wang and Huiyong Xu
Water 2018, 10(5), 643; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050643 - 16 May 2018
Cited by 43 | Viewed by 10213
Abstract
Contrary to the constraints in time, investment, and management of the traditional technology for waste water treatment, this paper seeks to propose a more advanced, reliable, and affordable new technology to restore urban polluted rivers to pristine quality levels. The paper also presents [...] Read more.
Contrary to the constraints in time, investment, and management of the traditional technology for waste water treatment, this paper seeks to propose a more advanced, reliable, and affordable new technology to restore urban polluted rivers to pristine quality levels. The paper also presents new ideas on the selection and use of microbial agents to improve the efficiency of pollution removal. It presents the successful implementation of microbial technology (MT) on Chengnan River, which was heavily polluted before MT implementation. Without artificial aeration, sediment dredging, or complete sewage interception, we directly sprayed a previously configured HP-RPe-3 Microbial Agent into the water body and sediment. We considered the feasibility of MT for treating polluted urban rivers from the perspective of several water quality indices evaluation methods. After the treatment, the concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO) reached 5.0 mg/L, the removal rates of ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) reached 20% and 38% respectively, and the average degradation rate of total phosphorus (TP) along river was close to 15%. Also, the Nemerow Index of the river was reduced from 2.7 to 1.9. The Fuzzy Comprehensive Index shows a tendency for improvement from Inferior Grade V to a better grade (approximately Grade III). The color of the river water changed, from black or dark green, to its original color. The results indicate that the bioremediation technology of directly adding microbial agents mainly aimed for the degradation of NH3-N can preliminarily eliminate the black-odor phenomenon of urban rivers, and improve their water quality. It is expected that the MT application, and the concept of how to select the corresponding microbial agents according to main pollutants, can be widely accepted and applied to similar cases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Water Quality and Contamination)
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23 pages, 8982 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Multi-Satellite Precipitation Products for Streamflow Simulations: A Case Study for the Han River Basin in the Korean Peninsula, East Asia
by Thom Thi Vu, Li Li and Kyung Soo Jun
Water 2018, 10(5), 642; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050642 - 16 May 2018
Cited by 62 | Viewed by 6620
Abstract
The accuracy and sufficiency of precipitation data play a key role in environmental research and hydrological models. They have a significant effect on the simulation results of hydrological models; therefore, reliable hydrological simulation in data-scarce areas is a challenging task. Advanced techniques can [...] Read more.
The accuracy and sufficiency of precipitation data play a key role in environmental research and hydrological models. They have a significant effect on the simulation results of hydrological models; therefore, reliable hydrological simulation in data-scarce areas is a challenging task. Advanced techniques can be utilized to improve the accuracy of satellite-derived rainfall data, which can be used to overcome the problem of data scarcity. Our study aims to (1) assess the accuracy of different satellite precipitation products such as Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM 3B42 V7), Precipitation Estimation from Remotely Sensed Information using Artificial Neural Networks (PERSIANN), PERSIANN-Climate Data Record (PERSIANN-CDR), and China Meteorological Assimilation Driving Datasets for the SWAT Model (CMADS) by comparing them with gauged rainfall data; and (2) apply them for runoff simulations for the Han River Basin in South Korea using the SWAT model. Based on the statistical measures, that is, the proportion correct (PC), the probability of detection (POD), the frequency bias index (FBI), the index of agreement (IOA), the root-mean-square-error (RMSE), the mean absolute error (MAE), the coefficient of determination (R2), and the bias, the rainfall data of the TRMM and CMADS show a better accuracy than those of PERSIANN and PERSIANN-CDR when compared to rain gauge measurements. The TRMM and CMADS data capture the spatial rainfall patterns in mountainous areas as well. The streamflow simulated by the SWAT model using ground-based rainfall data agrees well with the observed streamflow with an average Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE) of 0.68. The four satellite rainfall products were used as inputs in the SWAT model for streamflow simulation and the results were compared. The average R2, NSE, and percent bias (PBIAS) show that hydrological models using TRMM (R2 = 0.54, NSE = 0.49, PBIAS = [−52.70–28.30%]) and CMADS (R2 = 0.44, NSE = 0.42, PBIAS = [−29.30–41.80%]) data perform better than those utilizing PERSIANN (R2 = 0.29, NSE = 0.13, PBIAS = [38.10–83.20%]) and PERSIANN-CDR (R2 = 0.25, NSE = 0.16, PBIAS = [12.70–71.20%]) data. Overall, the results of this study are satisfactory, given that rainfall data obtained from TRMM and CMADS can be used to simulate the streamflow of the Han River Basin with acceptable accuracy. Based on these results, TRMM and CMADS rainfall data play important roles in hydrological simulations and water resource management in the Han River Basin and in other regions with similar climate and topographical characteristics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of the China Meteorological Assimilation Driving Datasets for the SWAT Model (CMADS) in East Asia)
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15 pages, 1410 KiB  
Article
Occurrence and Health-Risk Assessment of Trace Metals in Raw and Boiled Drinking Water from Rural Areas of China
by Junhua Wu, Yi Man, Guangyi Sun and Lihai Shang
Water 2018, 10(5), 641; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050641 - 16 May 2018
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 5014
Abstract
In order to assess the exposure of rural residents to trace metals via drinking water ingestion, 222 drinking water samples of rural areas from 8 provinces in China were collected and 18 trace metals analyzed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-QMS). Based [...] Read more.
In order to assess the exposure of rural residents to trace metals via drinking water ingestion, 222 drinking water samples of rural areas from 8 provinces in China were collected and 18 trace metals analyzed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-QMS). Based on metal concentrations, the health-risk assessment such as chronic daily intakes (CDI) and hazard quotient (HQ) were calculated. Results showed that most metals occurred in the drinking water at very low concentrations, indicating a general good quality, while the concentrations of As, Pb and Zn in some samples from Qinghai, Yunnan and Hunan provinces were higher than World Health Organization (WHO) and Chinese guidelines for drinking water. The values of CDI and HQ indicated a negligible health risk for most Chinese rural residents via drinking water. However, high concentrations of As in drinking water from Qinghai province would pose a serious risk to the local inhabitants. More attention and intensive study should be paid to Zn, Pb and As contents. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Water Quality and Contamination)
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18 pages, 22590 KiB  
Article
Daily Evapotranspiration Estimation at the Field Scale: Using the Modified SEBS Model and HJ-1 Data in a Desert-Oasis Area, Northwestern China
by Zhenyan Yi, Hongli Zhao, Yunzhong Jiang, Haowen Yan, Yin Cao, Yanyan Huang and Zhen Hao
Water 2018, 10(5), 640; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050640 - 15 May 2018
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4658
Abstract
Accurate continuous daily evapotranspiration (ET) at the field scale is crucial for allocating and managing water resources in irrigation areas, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. The authors integrated the modified perpendicular drought index (MPDI) as an indicator of water stress into surface [...] Read more.
Accurate continuous daily evapotranspiration (ET) at the field scale is crucial for allocating and managing water resources in irrigation areas, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. The authors integrated the modified perpendicular drought index (MPDI) as an indicator of water stress into surface energy balance system (SEBS) to improve ET estimation under water-limited conditions. The new approach fed with Chinese satellite HJ-1 (environmental and disaster monitoring and forecasting with a small satellite constellation) images was used to map daily ET on the desert-oasis irrigation fields in the middle of the Heihe River Basin. The outputs, including instantaneous sensible heat flux (H) and daily ET from the MPDI-integrated SEBS and the original SEBS model, were compared with the eddy covariance observations. The results indicate that the MPDI-integrated SEBS significantly improved the surface turbulent fluxes in water-limited regions, especially for sparsely vegetated areas. The new approach only uses one optical satellite data and meteorological data as inputs, providing a considerable operational improvement for ET mapping. Moreover, HJ-1 high-resolution data promised continuous daily ET at the field scale, which helps in understanding the corresponding relationships among field, crop, and water consumption. Such detailed ET information can greatly serve water resources management in the study area as well as other arid and semi-arid regions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Remote Sensing and GIS in Hydrology)
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