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Ecological Responses of Lakes to Climate Change
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Ecological Responses of Lakes to Climate Change

A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Water Quality and Contamination".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2017) | Viewed by 72369

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Karl Havens

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences and Florida Sea Grant College Program, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
Interests: shallow lake ecology; plankton ecology; food web dynamics; effects of natural and anthropogenic stressors on lakes; climate variability & change and lake ecosystem dynamics
Prof. Dr. Erik Jeppesen

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, 8600 Silkeborg, Denmark
2. Limnology Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences and Centre for Ecosystem Research and Implementation, Middle East Technical University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey
Interests: aquatic ecology; biological structure and interactions with the nutrient dynamics and climate in lakes; lake restoration; lake re-establishment; paleoecology; ecosystem modelling
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We encourage you to submit papers for an important Special Issue of Water focused on the ecological responses of lakes to climate change. Already, around the world, we have observed changes in the physical, chemical and biological dynamics of lake ecosystems in response to climate change. Climate change has altered thermal stratification, winter ice cover, rainfall and runoff patterns, drought occurrence and other attributes that affect lakes, their productivity, their food webs and fisheries and occurrence of harmful algal blooms. With further global warming it is anticipated that lakes will experience more dramatic changes. Papers for this Special Issue should be forward-looking in the sense that we use contemporary data and modelling to forecast how lakes might respond to future climate changes and how this will affect their ecosystem services. Additionally, papers might describe approaches that can be taken to more effectively discern ecological changes that occur in lakes in the early stages of response to climate change. Case studies that consider lake responses to climate variability are suitable however they must substantively contribute to a broader understanding of this topic and allow for general predictions about climate change effects.

Prof. Dr. Karl Havens
Prof. Dr. Erik Jeppesen
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Water is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • lakes
  • climate change
  • global warming
  • ecological responses
  • ecological forecasting
  • ecosystem services

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

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9 pages, 200 KiB  
Editorial
Ecological Responses of Lakes to Climate Change
by Karl Havens and Erik Jeppesen
Water 2018, 10(7), 917; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10070917 - 11 Jul 2018
Cited by 39 | Viewed by 5349
Abstract
n/a Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Responses of Lakes to Climate Change)

Research

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2640 KiB  
Article
Response of Zooplankton to Climate Variability: Droughts Create a Perfect Storm for Cladocerans in Shallow Eutrophic Lakes
by Gaohua Ji, Karl E. Havens, John R. Beaver and Rolland S. Fulton III
Water 2017, 9(10), 764; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9100764 - 06 Oct 2017
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4794
Abstract
A major attribute of the Earth’s climate that may be affected by global warming is the amplitude of variability in teleconnections. These global-scale processes involve links between oceanic conditions in one locale and weather in another, often distant, locale. An example is the [...] Read more.
A major attribute of the Earth’s climate that may be affected by global warming is the amplitude of variability in teleconnections. These global-scale processes involve links between oceanic conditions in one locale and weather in another, often distant, locale. An example is the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), which can affect rainfall and then the properties of lakes in Europe, Africa, North and South America. It affects rainfall, droughts and the depth of lakes in Florida, USA. It is predicted that the amplitude of variation in the ENSO will increase with global warming and, therefore, droughts will become more severe and periods of rain more intense. We investigated possible effects of climate on the zooplankton in shallow subtropical lakes by studying 16 years of monthly data from six shallow eutrophic lakes located north of Orlando, Florida. Results indicate that water depth and lake volume are tightly coupled with rainfall, as expected. During droughts, when lake depth and volume were greatly reduced, there were intensified cyanobacterial blooms, and the zooplankton shifted towards greater relative biomass of copepods compared to cladocerans. The change of zooplankton was likely due to the intensified selective fish predation in the reduced water volume, and/or selective adverse effects of cyanobacteria on cladocerans. The greatly reduced volume might lead to a ‘perfect storm’ of top-down and bottom-up factors that favor copepods over cladocerans. The mechanism needs further study. Regardless, this study documents a direct link between climate variability and zooplankton composition, and suggests how future changes in climate might affect plankton communities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Responses of Lakes to Climate Change)
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2129 KiB  
Article
Effects of Climate, Limnological Features and Watershed Clearcut Logging on Long-Term Variation in Zooplankton Communities of Boreal Shield Lakes
by David Lévesque, Bernadette Pinel-Alloul, Ginette Méthot and Robert Steedman
Water 2017, 9(10), 733; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9100733 - 25 Sep 2017
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4926
Abstract
In Canada, climate change and forest harvesting may both threaten the ecological integrity of boreal lakes. To disentangle the effects of natural variation in climate and lake environments from those of logging, we evaluated long-term variation (1991–2003) in zooplankton communities of six boreal [...] Read more.
In Canada, climate change and forest harvesting may both threaten the ecological integrity of boreal lakes. To disentangle the effects of natural variation in climate and lake environments from those of logging, we evaluated long-term variation (1991–2003) in zooplankton communities of six boreal lakes in Ontario. We monitored concomitantly changes in zooplankton abundance and composition in three undisturbed and three harvested lakes, five years prior and eight years after watershed clearcut logging. We tested the hypothesis that long-term natural variation in climate and lake environments will be more important drivers of zooplankton community changes than short-term impacts of logging. We used space/time interaction tests and asymmetric eigenvector maps to model zooplankton responses to environmental changes and logging. Year-to-year variation in zooplankton abundance and composition were almost an order of magnitude whereas among-lake variation was stable through time. Breakpoints in time series of zooplankton in each lake were not directly related to logging. Climatic and limnological features were the most important drivers of long-term variation in the zooplankton community, shading the effect of logging. These results highlight the need to better understand the pressures exerted by climate change on boreal lake ecosystems in the context of anthropogenic pressure, such as logging. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Responses of Lakes to Climate Change)
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2279 KiB  
Article
Methane Emissions in Spanish Saline Lakes: Current Rates, Temperature and Salinity Responses, and Evolution under Different Climate Change Scenarios
by Antonio Camacho, Antonio Picazo, Carlos Rochera, Anna C. Santamans, Daniel Morant, Javier Miralles-Lorenzo and Andreu Castillo-Escrivà
Water 2017, 9(9), 659; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9090659 - 01 Sep 2017
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 5435
Abstract
Wetlands are among the most biologically active ecosystems on Earth, playing an important role in the global carbon cycle. Methane production in wetlands, resulting from anaerobic respiration of organic matter, accounts for an important part of natural sources of methane. In this work, [...] Read more.
Wetlands are among the most biologically active ecosystems on Earth, playing an important role in the global carbon cycle. Methane production in wetlands, resulting from anaerobic respiration of organic matter, accounts for an important part of natural sources of methane. In this work, we have evaluated the methane release rates of saline shallow lakes located in Central Spain, some of which maintain natural conditions, whereas others are hydrologically altered, with lowered salinity, or even presenting trophic alterations. We used sediment core plus water incubations to determine the release of methane from the studied lakes to the atmosphere, integrating both diffusion and ebullition processes, as well as the effects of temperature and salinity on methane production. The studied hypersaline lakes released methane at rates within the lowest range reported for temperate lakes and wetlands, whereas in hydrologically altered lakes that have dropped their salinity these rates were markedly higher. Models built with the specific response of methane release rates to temperature regarding the temperature changes expected according to the RCP climate scenarios predicted significant increases of these rates for the future, which could almost double current methane release for some of the studied lakes under the most pessimistic mitigation scenario (RCP8.5). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Responses of Lakes to Climate Change)
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5290 KiB  
Article
Recent Sedimentation Rates of Shallow Lakes in the Middle and Lower Reaches of the Yangtze River: Patterns, Controlling Factors and Implications for Lake Management
by Min Xu, Xuhui Dong, Xiangdong Yang, Xu Chen, Qinghui Zhang, Qian Liu, Rong Wang, Min Yao, Thomas A. Davidson and Erik Jeppesen
Water 2017, 9(8), 617; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9080617 - 17 Aug 2017
Cited by 38 | Viewed by 7762
Abstract
Significantly increased sedimentation rates (SRs) in lakes worldwide in recent decades due to higher inputs of silt and eutrophication have led to significant environmental problems such as lake size diminishment and degraded water quality. Many lakes in the middle and lower reaches of [...] Read more.
Significantly increased sedimentation rates (SRs) in lakes worldwide in recent decades due to higher inputs of silt and eutrophication have led to significant environmental problems such as lake size diminishment and degraded water quality. Many lakes in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River basin (MLYB) have followed this pattern. For effective lake management, it is essential to understand the pattern and drivers of SRs in these lakes. Fourteen typical lakes in the MLYB were chosen to examine the spatiotemporal patterns of SRs and identify the drivers over different time periods. Since 1900, SRs increased from <0.2 to 0.3–0.6 g·cm−2·year−1, particularly notable during 1930–1990. Combined with climatic factors, SR correlated negatively with lake (catchment) size and abundance of aquatic vegetation, whereas other lake features including nutrient status did not contribute significantly to the variation in SRs, due to the fast decomposition processes of organic matter in shallow lakes. Detrimental land use practices especially reclamation for croplands and rapid urbanization was revealed to elevate SRs pronouncedly. We propose various management strategies aiming to maintain SR reference condition at ~0.16 ± 0.08 g·cm−2·year−1, which is analogous to the SR value between 1850 and 1900. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Responses of Lakes to Climate Change)
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1055 KiB  
Article
Carbon Dioxide Emissions from the Littoral Zone of a Chinese Reservoir
by Meng Yang, John Grace, Xuemeng Geng, Lei Guan, Yamian Zhang, Jialin Lei, Cai Lu and Guangchun Lei
Water 2017, 9(7), 539; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9070539 - 19 Jul 2017
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5283
Abstract
The continuous increase in the number of reservoirs globally has raised important questions about the environmental impact of their greenhouse gases emissions. In particular, the littoral zone may be a hotspot for production of greenhouse gases. We investigated the spatiotemporal variation of CO [...] Read more.
The continuous increase in the number of reservoirs globally has raised important questions about the environmental impact of their greenhouse gases emissions. In particular, the littoral zone may be a hotspot for production of greenhouse gases. We investigated the spatiotemporal variation of CO2 flux at the littoral zone of a Chinese reservoir along a wet-to-dry transect from permanently flooded land, seasonally flooded land to non-flooded dry land, using the static dark chamber technique. The mean total CO2 emission was 346 mg m−2 h−1 and the rate varied significantly by water levels, months and time of day. The spatiotemporal variation of flux was highly correlated with biomass, temperature and water level. Flooding could play a positive role in carbon balance if water recession occurs at the time when carbon gains associated with plant growth overcomes the carbon loss of ecosystem. The overall carbon balance was analysed using cumulative greenhouse gases fluxes and biomass, bringing the data of the present study alongside previously published, simultaneously measured CH4 and N2O fluxes. For the growing season, 12.8 g C m−2 was absorbed by the littoral zone. Taking CH4 and N2O into the calculation showed that permanently flooded sites were a source of greenhouse gases, rather than a sink. Our study emphasises how water level fluctuation influenced CO2, CH4 and N2O in different ways, which greatly affected the spatiotemporal variation and emission rate of greenhouse gases from the littoral zone. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Responses of Lakes to Climate Change)
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2276 KiB  
Article
Seasonal Variation in Spectral Response of Submerged Aquatic Macrophytes: A Case Study at Lake Starnberg (Germany)
by Christine Fritz, Thomas Schneider and Juergen Geist
Water 2017, 9(7), 527; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9070527 - 15 Jul 2017
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6125
Abstract
Submerged macrophytes are important structural components of freshwater ecosystems that are widely used as long-term bioindicators for the trophic state of freshwater lakes. Climate change and related rising water temperatures are suspected to affect macrophyte growth and species composition as well as the [...] Read more.
Submerged macrophytes are important structural components of freshwater ecosystems that are widely used as long-term bioindicators for the trophic state of freshwater lakes. Climate change and related rising water temperatures are suspected to affect macrophyte growth and species composition as well as the length of the growing season. Alternative to the traditional ground-based monitoring methods, remote sensing is expected to provide fast and effective tools to map submerged macrophytes at short intervals and over large areas. This study analyses interrelations between spectral signature, plant phenology and the length of growing season as influenced by the variable water temperature. During the growing seasons of 2011 and 2015, remote sensing reflectance spectra of macrophytes and sediment were collected systematically in-situ with hyperspectral underwater spectroradiometer at Lake Starnberg, Germany. The established spectral libraries were used to develop reflectance models. The combination of spectral information and phenologic characteristics allows the development of a phenologic fingerprint for each macrophyte species. By inversion, the reflectance models deliver day and daytime specific spectral signatures of the macrophyte populations. The subsequent classification processing chain allowed distinguishing species-specific macrophyte growth at different phenologic stages. The analysis of spectral signatures within the phenologic development indicates that the invasive species Elodea nuttallii is less affected by water temperature oscillations than the native species Chara spp. and Potamogeton perfoliatus. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Responses of Lakes to Climate Change)
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3821 KiB  
Article
Food Web Responses to Artificial Mixing in a Small Boreal Lake
by Lauri Arvola, Martti Rask, Martin Forsius, Pasi Ala-Opas, Jorma Keskitalo, Katja Kulo, Mika Kurkilahti, Anja Lehtovaara, Samuli Sairanen, Simo Salo, Tuomo Saloranta, Matti Verta and Sami Vesala
Water 2017, 9(7), 515; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9070515 - 12 Jul 2017
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4956
Abstract
In order to simulate food web responses of small boreal lakes to changes in thermal stratification due to global warming, a 4 year whole-lake manipulation experiment was performed. Within that time, period lake mixing was intensified artificially during two successive summers. Complementary data [...] Read more.
In order to simulate food web responses of small boreal lakes to changes in thermal stratification due to global warming, a 4 year whole-lake manipulation experiment was performed. Within that time, period lake mixing was intensified artificially during two successive summers. Complementary data from a nearby lake of similar size and basic water chemistry were used as a reference. Phytoplankton biomass and chlorophyll a did not respond to the greater mixing depth but an increase was observed in the proportional abundance of diatoms, and the proportional abundance of cryptophytes also increased immediately after the onset of mixing. Obligate anoxic green sulphur bacteria vanished at the onset of mixing but gradually recovered after re-establishment of hypolimnetic anoxic conditions. No major effect on crustacean zooplankton was found, but their diversity increased in the metalimnion. During the mixing, the density of rotifers declined but protozoan density increased in the hypolimnion. Littoral benthic invertebrate density increased during the mixing due to Ephemeroptera, Asellus aquaticus and Chironomidae, whereas the density of Chaoborus larvae declined during mixing and lower densities were still recorded one year after the treatment. No structural changes in fish community were found although gillnet catches increased after the onset of the study. The early growth of perch (Perca fluviatilis) increased compared to the years before the mixing and in comparison to the reference lake, suggesting improved food availability in the experimental lake. Although several food web responses to the greater mixing depth were found, their persistence and ecological significance were strongly dependent on the extent of the disturbance. To better understand the impacts of wind stress on small lakes, long term whole-lake experiments are needed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Responses of Lakes to Climate Change)
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2148 KiB  
Article
Fish but Not Macroinvertebrates Promote Trophic Cascading Effects in High Density Submersed Plant Experimental Lake Food Webs in Two Contrasting Climate Regions
by Carlos Iglesias, Erik Jeppesen, Néstor Mazzeo, Juan Pablo Pacheco, Franco Teixeira-de Mello, Frank Landkildehus, Claudia Fosalba, Juan M. Clemente and Mariana Meerhoff
Water 2017, 9(7), 514; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9070514 - 12 Jul 2017
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4451
Abstract
Predators play a key role in the functioning of shallow lakes. Differences between the response of temperate and subtropical systems to fish predation have been proposed, but experimental evidence is scarce. To elucidate cascading effects produced by predators in contrasting climatic zones, we [...] Read more.
Predators play a key role in the functioning of shallow lakes. Differences between the response of temperate and subtropical systems to fish predation have been proposed, but experimental evidence is scarce. To elucidate cascading effects produced by predators in contrasting climatic zones, we conducted a mesocosm experiment in three pairs of lakes in Uruguay and Denmark. We used two typical planktivorous-omnivorous fish species (Jenynsia multidentata + Cnesterodon decemmaculatus and Gasterosteus aculeatus + Perca fluviatilis) and one littoral omnivorous-predatory macroinvertebrate (Palaemonetes argentinus and Gammarus lacustris), alone and combined, in numbers resembling natural densities. Fish predation on zooplankton increased phytoplankton biomass in both climate zones, whereas the effects of predatory macroinvertebrates on zooplankton and phytoplankton were not significant in either climate zone. Macroinvertebrates (that freely colonized the sampling devices) were diminished by fish in both climate areas; however, periphyton biomass did not vary among treatments. Our experiments demonstrated that fish affected the structure of both planktonic and littoral herbivorous communities in both climate regions, with a visible positive cascading effect on phytoplankton biomass, but no effects on periphyton. Altogether, fish impacts appeared to be a strong driver of turbid water conditions in shallow lakes regardless of climatic zone by indirectly contributing to increasing phytoplankton biomass. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Responses of Lakes to Climate Change)
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3413 KiB  
Article
Transparency, Geomorphology and Mixing Regime Explain Variability in Trends in Lake Temperature and Stratification across Northeastern North America (1975–2014)
by David C. Richardson, Stephanie J. Melles, Rachel M. Pilla, Amy L. Hetherington, Lesley B. Knoll, Craig E. Williamson, Benjamin M. Kraemer, James R. Jackson, Elizabeth C. Long, Karen Moore, Lars G. Rudstam, James A. Rusak, Jasmine E. Saros, Sapna Sharma, Kristin E. Strock, Kathleen C. Weathers and Courtney R. Wigdahl-Perry
Water 2017, 9(6), 442; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9060442 - 20 Jun 2017
Cited by 75 | Viewed by 10482
Abstract
Lake surface water temperatures are warming worldwide, raising concerns about the future integrity of valuable lake ecosystem services. In contrast to surface water temperatures, we know far less about what is happening to water temperature beneath the surface, where most organisms live. Moreover, [...] Read more.
Lake surface water temperatures are warming worldwide, raising concerns about the future integrity of valuable lake ecosystem services. In contrast to surface water temperatures, we know far less about what is happening to water temperature beneath the surface, where most organisms live. Moreover, we know little about which characteristics make lakes more or less sensitive to climate change and other environmental stressors. We examined changes in lake thermal structure for 231 lakes across northeastern North America (NENA), a region with an exceptionally high density of lakes. We determined how lake thermal structure has changed in recent decades (1975–2012) and assessed which lake characteristics are related to changes in lake thermal structure. In general, NENA lakes had increasing near-surface temperatures and thermal stratification strength. On average, changes in deepwater temperatures for the 231 lakes were not significantly different than zero, but individually, half of the lakes experienced warming and half cooling deepwater temperature through time. More transparent lakes (Secchi transparency >5 m) tended to have higher near-surface warming and greater increases in strength of thermal stratification than less transparent lakes. Whole-lake warming was greatest in polymictic lakes, where frequent summer mixing distributed heat throughout the water column. Lakes often function as important sentinels of climate change, but lake characteristics within and across regions modify the magnitude of the signal with important implications for lake biology, ecology and chemistry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Responses of Lakes to Climate Change)
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4489 KiB  
Article
Summer Season Water Temperature Modeling under the Climate Change: Case Study for Fourchue River, Quebec, Canada
by Jaewon Kwak, André St-Hilaire, Fateh Chebana and Gilho Kim
Water 2017, 9(5), 346; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9050346 - 14 May 2017
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 7078
Abstract
It is accepted that human-induced climate change is unavoidable and it will have effects on physical, chemical, and biological properties of aquatic habitats. This will be especially important for cold water fishes such as trout. The objective of this study is to simulate [...] Read more.
It is accepted that human-induced climate change is unavoidable and it will have effects on physical, chemical, and biological properties of aquatic habitats. This will be especially important for cold water fishes such as trout. The objective of this study is to simulate water temperature for future periods under the climate change situations. Future water temperature in the Fourchue River (St-Alexandre-de-Kamouraska, QC, Canada) were simulated by the CEQUEAU hydrological and water temperature model, using meteorological inputs from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5) Global Circulation Models (GCMs) with Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 2.6, 4.5 and 8.5 climate change scenarios. The result of the study indicated that water temperature in June will increase 0.2–0.7 °C and that in September, median water temperature could decrease by 0.2–1.1 °C. The rise in summer water temperature may be favorable to brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) growth, but several days over the Upper Incipient Lethal Temperature (UILT) are also likely to occur. Therefore, flow regulation procedures, including cold water releases from the Morin dam may have to be considered for the Fourchue River. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Responses of Lakes to Climate Change)
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791 KiB  
Communication
Use of Multi-Carbon Sources by Zooplankton in an Oligotrophic Lake in the Tibetan Plateau
by En Hu, Hu He, Yaling Su, Erik Jeppesen and Zhengwen Liu
Water 2016, 8(12), 565; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8120565 - 01 Dec 2016
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4220
Abstract
We applied natural abundance stable isotope δ13C and radiocarbon ∆14C analyses to investigate trophic linkages between zooplankton and their potential food sources (phytoplankton, submersed plants, and allochthonous organic carbon) in Lake Nam Co, one of the largest oligosaline and [...] Read more.
We applied natural abundance stable isotope δ13C and radiocarbon ∆14C analyses to investigate trophic linkages between zooplankton and their potential food sources (phytoplankton, submersed plants, and allochthonous organic carbon) in Lake Nam Co, one of the largest oligosaline and oligotrophic lakes in the Tibetan Plateau, in south-west China. The δ13C and ∆14C levels of the calanoid copepod Arctodiaptomus altissimus pectinatus indicate that it uses different carbon sources. Thus, based on a two-isotope mixing model, our results suggested that recently synthesized but 14C-depleted primary producers (phytoplankton and submersed plants) were the most important sources of carbon, together contributing 92.2% of the zooplankton biomass. Allochthonous organic carbon and dissolved organic carbon constituted 4.7% and 3.1% of the carbon in the diet of zooplankton, respectively. Our findings from Lake Nam Co suggest that the carbon in the food webs of lakes located in a glaciated environment originates from various sources of different ages. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Responses of Lakes to Climate Change)
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