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23 pages, 1450 KiB

Open AccessArticle

BRAF and MEK Inhibitors Affect Dendritic-Cell Maturation and T-Cell Stimulation

by Stefanie Hoyer, Valentina Eberlein, Gerold Schuler, Carola Berking, Lucie Heinzerling, Niels Schaft and Jan Dörrie

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(21), 11951; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222111951 - 4 Nov 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2744

Abstract

BRAF and MEK inhibitor (BRAFi/MEKi) combinations are currently the standard treatment for patients with BRAF^V600 mutant metastatic melanoma. Since the RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK-pathway is crucial for the function of different immune cells, we postulated an effect on their function and thus interference with anti-tumor [...] Read more.

BRAF and MEK inhibitor (BRAFi/MEKi) combinations are currently the standard treatment for patients with BRAF^V600 mutant metastatic melanoma. Since the RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK-pathway is crucial for the function of different immune cells, we postulated an effect on their function and thus interference with anti-tumor immunity. Therefore, we examined the influence of BRAFi/MEKi, either as single agent or in combination, on the maturation of monocyte-derived dendritic cells (moDCs) and their interaction with T cells. DCs matured in the presence of vemurafenib or vemurafenib/cobimetinib altered their cytokine secretion and surface marker expression profile. Upon the antigen-specific stimulation of CD8⁺ and CD4⁺ T cells with these DCs or with T2.A1 cells in the presence of BRAFi/MEKi, we detected a lower expression of activation markers on and a lower cytokine secretion by these T cells. However, treatment with any of the inhibitors alone or in combination did not change the avidity of CD8⁺ T cells in peptide titration assays with T2.A1 cells. T-helper cell/DC interaction is a bi-directional process that normally results in DC activation. Vemurafenib and vemurafenib/cobimetinib completely abolished the helper T-cell-mediated upregulation of CD70, CD80, and CD86 but not CD25 on the DCs. The combination of dabrafenib/trametinib affected DC maturation and activation as well as T-cell activation less than combined vemurafenib/cobimetinib did. Hence, for a potential combination with immunotherapy, our data indicate the superiority of dabrafenib/trametinib treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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25 pages, 4708 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Insulin and α-Tocopherol Enhance the Protective Effect of Each Other on Brain Cortical Neurons under Oxidative Stress Conditions and in Rat Two-Vessel Forebrain Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury

by Irina O. Zakharova, Liubov V. Bayunova, Inna I. Zorina, Tatiana V. Sokolova, Alexander O. Shpakov and Natalia F. Avrova

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(21), 11768; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222111768 - 29 Oct 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2427

Abstract

Clinical trials show that insulin administered intranasally is a promising drug to treat neurodegenerative diseases, but at high doses its use may result in cerebral insulin resistance. Identifying compounds which could enhance the protective effects of insulin, may be helpful to reduce its [...] Read more.

Clinical trials show that insulin administered intranasally is a promising drug to treat neurodegenerative diseases, but at high doses its use may result in cerebral insulin resistance. Identifying compounds which could enhance the protective effects of insulin, may be helpful to reduce its effective dose. Our aim was thus to study the efficiency of combined use of insulin and α-tocopherol (α-T) to increase the viability of cultured cortical neurons under oxidative stress conditions and to normalize the metabolic disturbances caused by free radical reaction activation in brain cortex of rats with two-vessel forebrain ischemia/reperfusion injury. Immunoblotting, flow cytometry, colorimetric, and fluorometric techniques were used. α-T enhanced the protective and antioxidative effects of insulin on neurons in oxidative stress, their effects were additive. At the late stages of oxidative stress, the combined action of insulin and α-T increased Akt-kinase activity, inactivated GSK-3beta and normalized ERK1/2 activity in cortical neurons, it was more effective than either drug action. In the brain cortex, ischemia/reperfusion increased the lipid peroxidation product content and caused Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase oxidative inactivation. Co-administration of insulin (intranasally, 0.25 IU/rat) and α-T (orally, 50 mg/kg) led to a more pronounced normalization of the levels of Schiff bases, conjugated dienes and trienes and Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase activity than administration of each drug alone. Thus, α-T enhances the protective effects of insulin on cultured cortical neurons in oxidative stress and in the brain cortex of rats with cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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20 pages, 1474 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of MAPK3/1 and AKT in the Acquisition of High Meiotic and Developmental Competence of Porcine Oocytes Cultured In Vitro in FLI Medium

by Radek Procházka, Alexandra Bartková, Lucie Němcová, Matej Murín, Ahmed Gad, Kateřina Marcollová, Veronika Kinterová, Andrea Lucas-Hahn and Jozef Laurinčík

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(20), 11148; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222011148 - 15 Oct 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2424

Abstract

The developmental potential of porcine oocytes cultured in vitro was remarkably enhanced in a medium containing FGF2, LIF and IGF1 (FLI) when compared to a medium supplemented with gonadotropins and EGF (control). We analyzed the molecular background of the enhanced oocyte quality by [...] Read more.

The developmental potential of porcine oocytes cultured in vitro was remarkably enhanced in a medium containing FGF2, LIF and IGF1 (FLI) when compared to a medium supplemented with gonadotropins and EGF (control). We analyzed the molecular background of the enhanced oocyte quality by comparing the time course of MAPK3/1 and AKT activation, and the expression of genes controlled by these kinases in cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs) cultured in FLI and the control medium. The pattern of MAPK3/1 activation in COCs was very similar in both media, except for a robust increase in MAPK3/1 phosphorylation during the first hour of culture in the FLI medium. The COCs cultured in the FLI medium exhibited significantly higher activity of AKT than in the control medium from the beginning up to 16 h of culture; afterwards a deregulation of AKT activity occurred in the FLI medium, which was not observed in the control medium. The expression of cumulus cell genes controlled by both kinases was also modulated in the FLI medium, and in particular the genes related to cumulus-expansion, signaling, apoptosis, antioxidants, cell-to-cell communication, proliferation, and translation were significantly overexpressed. Collectively, these data indicate that both MAPK3/1 and AKT are implicated in the enhanced quality of oocytes cultured in FLI medium. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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18 pages, 4426 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Kinase CDK2 in Mammalian Meiotic Prophase I: Screening for Hetero- and Homomorphic Sex Chromosomes

by Sergey Matveevsky, Tsenka Chassovnikarova, Tatiana Grishaeva, Maret Atsaeva, Vasilii Malygin, Irina Bakloushinskaya and Oxana Kolomiets

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(4), 1969; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22041969 - 17 Feb 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2921

Abstract

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are crucial regulators of the eukaryotic cell cycle. The critical role of CDK2 in the progression of meiosis was demonstrated in a single mammalian species, the mouse. We used immunocytochemistry to study the localization of CDK2 during meiosis in seven [...] Read more.

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are crucial regulators of the eukaryotic cell cycle. The critical role of CDK2 in the progression of meiosis was demonstrated in a single mammalian species, the mouse. We used immunocytochemistry to study the localization of CDK2 during meiosis in seven rodent species that possess hetero- and homomorphic male sex chromosomes. To compare the distribution of CDK2 in XY and XX male sex chromosomes, we performed multi-round immunostaining of a number of marker proteins in meiotic chromosomes of the rat and subterranean mole voles. Antibodies to the following proteins were used: RAD51, a member of the double-stranded DNA break repair machinery; MLH1, a component of the DNA mismatch repair system; and SUN1, which is involved in the connection between the meiotic telomeres and nuclear envelope, alongside the synaptic protein SYCP3 and kinetochore marker CREST. Using an enhanced protocol, we were able to assess the distribution of as many as four separate proteins in the same meiotic cell. We showed that during prophase I, CDK2 localizes to telomeric and interstitial regions of autosomes in all species investigated (rat, vole, hamster, subterranean mole voles, and mole rats). In sex bivalents following synaptic specificity, the CDK2 signals were distributed in three different modes. In the XY bivalent in the rat and mole rat, we detected numerous CDK2 signals in asynaptic regions and a single CDK2 focus on synaptic segments, similar to the mouse sex chromosomes. In the mole voles, which have unique XX sex chromosomes in males, CDK2 signals were nevertheless distributed similarly to the rat XY sex chromosomes. In the vole, sex chromosomes did not synapse, but demonstrated CDK2 signals of varying intensity, similar to the rat X and Y chromosomes. In female mole voles, the XX bivalent had CDK2 pattern similar to autosomes of all species. In the hamster, CDK2 signals were revealed in telomeric regions in the short synaptic segment of the sex bivalent. We found that CDK2 signals colocalize with SUN1 and MLH1 signals in meiotic chromosomes in rats and mole voles, similar to the mouse. The difference in CDK2 manifestation at the prophase I sex chromosomes can be considered an example of the rapid chromosome evolution in mammals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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14 pages, 2750 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Drosophila Homeodomain-Interacting Protein Kinase (Hipk) Phosphorylates the Hippo/Warts Signalling Effector Yorkie

by Eva Louise Steinmetz, Denise Nicole Dewald and Uwe Walldorf

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(4), 1862; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22041862 - 13 Feb 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2410

Abstract

Developmental growth and patterning are regulated by an interconnected signalling network of several pathways. In Drosophila, the Warts (Wts) kinase, a component of the Hippo signalling pathway, plays an essential role in regulating transcription and growth by phosphorylating its substrate Yorkie (Yki). [...] Read more.

Developmental growth and patterning are regulated by an interconnected signalling network of several pathways. In Drosophila, the Warts (Wts) kinase, a component of the Hippo signalling pathway, plays an essential role in regulating transcription and growth by phosphorylating its substrate Yorkie (Yki). The phosphorylation of Yki critically influences its localisation and activity as a transcriptional coactivator. In this study, we identified the homeodomain-interacting protein kinase (Hipk) as another kinase that phosphorylates Yki and mapped several sites of Yki phosphorylated by Hipk, using in vitro analysis: Ser168, Ser169/Ser172 and Ser255. These sites might provide auxiliary input for Yki regulation in vivo, as transgenic flies with mutations in these show prominent phenotypes; Hipk, therefore, represents an additional upstream regulator of Yki that works in concert with Wts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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17 pages, 1286 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Novel Substrates for cGMP Dependent Protein Kinase (PKG) through Kinase Activity Profiling to Understand Its Putative Role in Inherited Retinal Degeneration

by Akanksha Roy, John Groten, Valeria Marigo, Tushar Tomar and Riet Hilhorst

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(3), 1180; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22031180 - 25 Jan 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2925

Abstract

Inherited retinal degenerative diseases (IRDs), which ultimately lead to photoreceptor cell death, are characterized by high genetic heterogeneity. Many IRD-associated genetic defects affect 3′,5′-cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) levels. cGMP-dependent protein kinases (PKGI and PKGII) have emerged as novel targets, and their inhibition has [...] Read more.

Inherited retinal degenerative diseases (IRDs), which ultimately lead to photoreceptor cell death, are characterized by high genetic heterogeneity. Many IRD-associated genetic defects affect 3′,5′-cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) levels. cGMP-dependent protein kinases (PKGI and PKGII) have emerged as novel targets, and their inhibition has shown functional protection in IRDs. The development of such novel neuroprotective compounds warrants a better understanding of the pathways downstream of PKGs that lead to photoreceptor degeneration. Here, we used human recombinant PKGs in combination with PKG activity modulators (cGMP, 3′,5′-cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), PKG activator, and PKG inhibitors) on a multiplex peptide microarray to identify substrates for PKGI and PKGII. In addition, we applied this technology in combination with PKG modulators to monitor kinase activity in a complex cell system, i.e. the retinal cell line 661W, which is used as a model system for IRDs. The high-throughput method allowed quick identification of bona fide substrates for PKGI and PKGII. The response to PKG modulators helped us to identify, in addition to ten known substrates, about 50 novel substrates for PKGI and/or PKGII which are either specific for one enzyme or common to both. Interestingly, both PKGs are able to phosphorylate the regulatory subunit of PKA, whereas only PKGII can phosphorylate the catalytic subunit of PKA. In 661W cells, the results suggest that PKG activators cause minor activation of PKG, but a prominent increase in the activity of cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA). However, the literature suggests an important role for PKG in IRDs. This conflicting information could be reconciled by cross-talk between PKG and PKA in the retinal cells. This must be explored further to elucidate the role of PKGs in IRDs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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21 pages, 3005 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Differential Role of Threonine and Tyrosine Phosphorylation in the Activation and Activity of the Yeast MAPK Slt2

by Gema González-Rubio, Ángela Sellers-Moya, Humberto Martín and María Molina

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(3), 1110; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22031110 - 23 Jan 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3268

Abstract

The Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) Slt2 is central to signaling through the yeast Cell Wall Integrity (CWI) pathway. MAPKs are regulated by phosphorylation at both the threonine and tyrosine of the conserved TXY motif within the activation loop (T190/Y192 in Slt2). Since phosphorylation [...] Read more.

The Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) Slt2 is central to signaling through the yeast Cell Wall Integrity (CWI) pathway. MAPKs are regulated by phosphorylation at both the threonine and tyrosine of the conserved TXY motif within the activation loop (T190/Y192 in Slt2). Since phosphorylation at both sites results in the full activation of MAPKs, signaling through MAPK pathways is monitored with antibodies that detect dually phosphorylated forms. However, most of these antibodies also recognize monophosphorylated species, whose relative abundance and functionality are diverse. By using different phosphospecific antibodies and phosphate-affinity (Phos-tag) analysis on distinct Slt2 mutants, we determined that Y192- and T190-monophosphorylated species coexist with biphosphorylated Slt2, although most of the Slt2 pool remains unphosphorylated following stress. Among the monophosphorylated forms, only T190 exhibited biological activity. Upon stimulation, Slt2 is first phosphorylated at Y192, mainly by the MAPKK Mkk1, and this phosphorylation is important for the subsequent T190 phosphorylation. Similarly, dephosphorylation of Slt2 by the Dual Specificity Phosphatase (DSP) Msg5 is ordered, with dephosphorylation of T190 depending on previous Y192 dephosphorylation. Whereas Y192 phosphorylation enhances the Slt2 catalytic activity, T190 is essential for this activity. The conserved T195 residue is also critical for Slt2 functionality. Mutations that abolish the activity of Slt2 result in a high increase in inactive Y192-monophosphorylated Slt2. The coexistence of different Slt2 phosphoforms with diverse biological significance highlights the importance of the precise detection of the Slt2 phosphorylation status. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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12 pages, 1500 KiB

Open AccessArticle

TAK1 Mediates ROS Generation Triggered by the Specific Cephalosporins through Noncanonical Mechanisms

by Midori Suzuki, Yukino Asai, Tomohiro Kagi, Takuya Noguchi, Mayuka Yamada, Yusuke Hirata and Atsushi Matsuzawa

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(24), 9497; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21249497 - 14 Dec 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3813

Abstract

It is known that a wide variety of antibacterial agents stimulate generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in mammalian cells. However, its mechanisms are largely unknown. In this study, we unexpectedly found that transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β)-activated kinase 1 (TAK1) is involved in [...] Read more.

It is known that a wide variety of antibacterial agents stimulate generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in mammalian cells. However, its mechanisms are largely unknown. In this study, we unexpectedly found that transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β)-activated kinase 1 (TAK1) is involved in the generation of mitochondrial ROS (mtROS) initiated by cefotaxime (CTX), one of specific antibacterial cephalosporins that can trigger oxidative stress-induced cell death. TAK1-deficient macrophages were found to be sensitive to oxidative stress-induced cell death stimulated by H₂O₂. Curiously, however, TAK1-deficient macrophages exhibited strong resistance to oxidative stress-induced cell death stimulated by CTX. Microscopic analysis revealed that CTX-induced ROS generation was overridden by knockout or inhibition of TAK1, suggesting that the kinase activity of TAK1 is required for CTX-induced ROS generation. Interestingly, pharmacological blockade of the TAK1 downstream pathways, such as nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways, did not affect the CTX-induced ROS generation. In addition, we observed that CTX promotes translocation of TAK1 to mitochondria. Together, these observations suggest that mitochondrial TAK1 mediates the CTX-induced mtROS generation through noncanonical mechanisms. Thus, our data demonstrate a novel and atypical function of TAK1 that mediates mtROS generation triggered by the specific cephalosporins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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15 pages, 3381 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of PC12 Cell Subclones with Different Sensitivities to Programmed Thermal Stimulation

by Tada-aki Kudo, Kanako Tominami, Satoshi Izumi, Yohei Hayashi, Takuya Noguchi, Atsushi Matsuzawa, Guang Hong and Junichi Nakai

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(21), 8356; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21218356 - 7 Nov 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3837

Abstract

Neuritogenesis is the process underling nervous system regeneration; however, optimal extracellular signals that can promote neuronal regenerative activities require further investigation. Previously, we developed a novel method for inducing neuronal differentiation in rat PC12 cells using temperature-controlled repeated thermal stimulation (TRTS) with a [...] Read more.

Neuritogenesis is the process underling nervous system regeneration; however, optimal extracellular signals that can promote neuronal regenerative activities require further investigation. Previously, we developed a novel method for inducing neuronal differentiation in rat PC12 cells using temperature-controlled repeated thermal stimulation (TRTS) with a heating plate. Based on neurogenic sensitivity to TRTS, PC12 cells were classified as either hyper- or hyposensitive. In this study, we aimed to investigate the mechanism of hyposensitivity by establishing two PC12-derived subclones according to TRTS sensitivity during differentiation: PC12-P1F1, a hypersensitive subclone, and PC12-P1D10, a hyposensitive subclone. To characterize these subclones, cell size and neuritogenesis were evaluated in subclones treated with nerve growth factor (NGF), bone morphogenetic protein (BMP), or various TRTS. No significant differences in cell size were observed among the parental cells and subclones. BMP4- or TRTS-induced neuritogenesis was increased in PC12-P1F1 cells compared to that in the parental cells, while no neuritogenesis was observed in PC12-P1D10 cells. In contrast, NGF-induced neuritogenesis was observed in all three cell lines. Furthermore, a BMP inhibitor, LDN-193189, considerably inhibited TRTS-induced neuritogenesis. These results suggest that the BMP pathway might be required for TRTS-induced neuritogenesis, demonstrating the useful aspects of these novel subclones for TRTS research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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11 pages, 2760 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Two-Player Game in a Complex Landscape: 26S Proteasome, PKA, and Intracellular Calcium Concentration Modulate Mammalian Sperm Capacitation by Creating an Integrated Dialogue—A Computational Analysis

by Angela Taraschi, Costanza Cimini, Giulia Capacchietti, Marina Ramal-Sanchez, Luca Valbonetti, Juliana Machado-Simoes, Fadl Moussa, Israiel Tagaram, Samia Mokh, Mohamad Al Iskandarani, Alessia Colosimo, Barbara Barboni and Nicola Bernabò

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(17), 6256; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21176256 - 29 Aug 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2651

Abstract

Recent experimental findings suggest the involvement of the 26S proteasome, the main protease active in eukaryotic cells, in the process that leads mammalian sperm to become fully fertile, so-called capacitation. Unfortunately, its role in male gametes signaling is still far from being completely [...] Read more.

Recent experimental findings suggest the involvement of the 26S proteasome, the main protease active in eukaryotic cells, in the process that leads mammalian sperm to become fully fertile, so-called capacitation. Unfortunately, its role in male gametes signaling is still far from being completely understood. For this reason, here, we realized a computational model, based on network theory, with the aim of rebuilding and exploring its signaling cascade. As a result, we found that the 26S proteasome is part of a signal transduction system that recognizes the bicarbonate ion as an input terminal and two intermediate layers of information processing. The first is under the control of the 26S proteasome and protein kinase A (PKA), which are strongly interconnected, while the latter depends on intracellular calcium concentrations. Both are active in modulating sperm function by influencing the protein phosphorylation pattern and then controlling several key events in sperm capacitation, such as membrane and cytoskeleton remodeling. Then, we found different clusters of molecules possibly involved in this pathway and connecting it to the immune system. In conclusion, this work adds a piece to the puzzle of protease and kinase crosstalk involved in the physiology of sperm cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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21 pages, 2277 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Regulation of ABA-Non-Activated SNF1-Related Protein Kinase 2 Signaling Pathways by Phosphatidic Acid

by Maria Klimecka, Maria Bucholc, Justyna Maszkowska, Ewa Krzywińska, Grażyna Goch, Małgorzata Lichocka, Jadwiga Szczegielniak and Grażyna Dobrowolska

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(14), 4984; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21144984 - 15 Jul 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3276

Abstract

Phosphatidic acid (PA) is involved in the regulation of plant growth and development, as well as responses to various environmental stimuli. Several PA targets in plant cells were identified, including two SNF1-related protein kinases 2 (SnRK2s), SnRK2.10 and SnRK2.4, which are not activated [...] Read more.

Phosphatidic acid (PA) is involved in the regulation of plant growth and development, as well as responses to various environmental stimuli. Several PA targets in plant cells were identified, including two SNF1-related protein kinases 2 (SnRK2s), SnRK2.10 and SnRK2.4, which are not activated by abscisic acid (ABA). Here, we investigated the effects of PA on various elements of ABA-non-activated SnRK2 signaling. PA 16:0/18:1 was found to modulate the SnRK2 structure and the phosphorylation of some SnRK2 targets. Conversely, phosphorylation by the ABA-non-activated SnRK2s, of one of such targets, dehydrin Early Responsive to Dehydration 14 (ERD14), affects its interaction with PA and subcellular localization. Moreover, PA 16:0/18:1 modulates the activity and/or localization of negative regulators of the ABA-non-activated SnRK2s, not only of the ABA insensitive 1 (ABI1) phosphatase, which was identified earlier, but also of another protein phosphatase 2C, PP2CA. The activity of both phosphatases was inhibited by about 50% in the presence of 50 μM PA. PA 16:0/18:1 also impacts the phosphorylation and subcellular localization of SnRK2-interacting calcium sensor, known to inhibit SnRK2 activity in a calcium-dependent manner. Thus, PA was found to regulate ABA-non-activated SnRK2 signaling at several levels: the activity, phosphorylation status and/or localization of SnRK2 cellular partners. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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20 pages, 3975 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Specific IKKε/TBK1 Inhibitor Amlexanox Suppresses Human Melanoma by the Inhibition of Autophagy, NF-κB and MAP Kinase Pathways

by Moritz Möller, Julia Wasel, Julia Schmetzer, Ulrike Weiß, Markus Meissner, Susanne Schiffmann, Andreas Weigert, Christine V. Möser and Ellen Niederberger

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(13), 4721; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21134721 - 2 Jul 2020

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4110

Abstract

Inhibitor-kappaB kinase epsilon (IKKε) and TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1) are non-canonical IκB kinases, both described as contributors to tumor growth and metastasis in different cancer types. Several hints indicate that they are also involved in the pathogenesis of melanoma; however, the impact of [...] Read more.

Inhibitor-kappaB kinase epsilon (IKKε) and TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1) are non-canonical IκB kinases, both described as contributors to tumor growth and metastasis in different cancer types. Several hints indicate that they are also involved in the pathogenesis of melanoma; however, the impact of their inhibition as a potential therapeutic measure in this “difficult-to-treat” cancer type has not been investigated so far. We assessed IKKε and TBK1 expression in human malignant melanoma cells, primary tumors and the metastasis of melanoma patients. Both kinases were expressed in the primary tumor and in metastasis and showed a significant overexpression in tumor cells in comparison to melanocytes. The pharmacological inhibition of IKKε/TBK1 by the approved drug amlexanox reduced cell proliferation, migration and invasion. Amlexanox did not affect the cell cycle progression nor apoptosis induction but significantly suppressed autophagy in melanoma cells. The analysis of potential functional downstream targets revealed that NF-кB and ERK pathways might be involved in kinase-mediated effects. In an in vivo xenograft model in nude mice, amlexanox treatment significantly reduced tumor growth. In conclusion, amlexanox was able to suppress tumor progression potentially by the inhibition of autophagy as well as NF-кB and MAP kinase pathways and might therefore constitute a promising candidate for melanoma therapy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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14 pages, 3637 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Functional Heterogeneity of Protein Kinase A Activation in Multipotent Stromal Cells

by Pyotr A. Tyurin-Kuzmin, Maxim N. Karagyaur, Konstantin Yu. Kulebyakin, Daniyar T. Dyikanov, Vadim I. Chechekhin, Anastasiya M. Ivanova, Mariya N. Skryabina, Mikhail S. Arbatskiy, Veronika Yu. Sysoeva, Natalia I. Kalinina and Vsevolod A. Tkachuk

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(12), 4442; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21124442 - 22 Jun 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2805

Abstract

Multipotent stromal cells (MSC) demonstrate remarkable functional heterogeneity; however, its molecular mechanisms remain largely obscure. In this study, we explored MSC response to hormones, which activate Gs-protein / cyclic AMP (cAMP) / protein kinase A (PKA) dependent signaling, at the single cell level [...] Read more.

Multipotent stromal cells (MSC) demonstrate remarkable functional heterogeneity; however, its molecular mechanisms remain largely obscure. In this study, we explored MSC response to hormones, which activate Gs-protein / cyclic AMP (cAMP) / protein kinase A (PKA) dependent signaling, at the single cell level using genetically encoded biosensor PKA-Spark. For the first time, we demonstrated that about half of cultured MSCs are not able to activate the cAMP/PKA pathway, possibly due to the limited availability of adenylyl cyclases. Using this approach, we showed that MSC subpopulations responding to various hormones largely overlapped, and the share of responding cells did not exceed 40%. Using clonal analysis, we showed that signaling heterogeneity of MSC could be formed de novo within 2 weeks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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11 pages, 3231 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Regulation of Autophagy by Protein Kinase C-ε in Breast Cancer Cells

by Alakananda Basu

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(12), 4247; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21124247 - 15 Jun 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3734

Abstract

Protein kinase C-ε (PKCε), an anti-apoptotic protein, plays critical roles in breast cancer development and progression. Although autophagy is an important survival mechanism, it is not known if PKCε regulates autophagy in breast cancer cells. We have shown that silencing of PKCε by [...] Read more.

Protein kinase C-ε (PKCε), an anti-apoptotic protein, plays critical roles in breast cancer development and progression. Although autophagy is an important survival mechanism, it is not known if PKCε regulates autophagy in breast cancer cells. We have shown that silencing of PKCε by siRNA inhibited basal and starvation-induced autophagy in T47D breast cancer cells as determined by the decrease in LC3-II, increase in p62, and decrease in autophagy puncta both in the presence and absence of bafilomycin A1. The mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) associates with Raptor or Rictor to form complex-1 (mTORC1) or complex-2 (mTORC2), respectively. Knockdown of PKCε attenuated an increase in autophagy caused by the depletion of Raptor and Rictor. Overexpression of PKCε in MCF-7 cells caused activation of mTORC1 and an increase in LC3-I, LC3-II, and p62. The mTORC1 inhibitor rapamycin abolished the increase in LC3-I and p62. Knockdown of mTOR and Rictor or starvation enhanced autophagy in PKCε overexpressing cells. While overexpression of PKCε in MCF-7 cells inhibited apoptosis, it induced autophagy in response to tumor necrosis factor-α. However, inhibition of autophagy by Atg5 knockdown restored apoptosis in PKCε-overexpressing cells. Thus, PKCε promotes breast cancer cell survival not only by inhibiting apoptosis but also by inducing autophagy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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17 pages, 3371 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Protein Kinase A Catalytic and Regulatory Subunits Interact Differently in Various Areas of Mouse Brain

by Carla Mucignat-Caretta and Antonio Caretta

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(9), 3051; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21093051 - 26 Apr 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2763

Abstract

Protein kinase A (PKA) are tetramers of two catalytic and two regulatory subunits, docked at precise intracellular sites to provide localized phosphorylating activity, triggered by cAMP binding to regulatory subunits and subsequent dissociation of catalytic subunits. It is unclear whether in the brain [...] Read more.

Protein kinase A (PKA) are tetramers of two catalytic and two regulatory subunits, docked at precise intracellular sites to provide localized phosphorylating activity, triggered by cAMP binding to regulatory subunits and subsequent dissociation of catalytic subunits. It is unclear whether in the brain PKA dissociated subunits may also be found. PKA catalytic subunit was examined in various mouse brain areas using immunofluorescence, equilibrium binding and western blot, to reveal its location in comparison to regulatory subunits type RI and RII. In the cerebral cortex, catalytic subunits colocalized with clusters of RI, yet not all RI clusters were bound to catalytic subunits. In stria terminalis, catalytic subunits were in proximity to RI but separated from them. Catalytic subunits clusters were also present in the corpus striatum, where RII clusters were detected, whereas RI clusters were absent. Upon cAMP addition, the distribution of regulatory subunits did not change, while catalytic subunits were completely released from regulatory subunits. Unpredictably, catalytic subunits were not solubilized; instead, they re-targeted to other binding sites within the tissue, suggesting local macromolecular reorganization. Hence, the interactions between catalytic and regulatory subunits of protein kinase A consistently vary in different brain areas, supporting the idea of multiple interaction patterns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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16 pages, 2009 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Effect of Increased α2,3-Sialylation on RTK Activation in MKN45 Gastric Cancer Spheroids Treated with Crizotinib

by Meritxell Balmaña, Francisca Diniz, Tália Feijão, Cristina C. Barrias, Stefan Mereiter and Celso A. Reis

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(3), 722; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21030722 - 22 Jan 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3736

Abstract

In the scenario of personalized medicine, targeted therapies are currently the focus of cancer drug development. These drugs can block the growth and spread of tumor cells by interfering with key molecules involved in malignancy, such as receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). MET and [...] Read more.

In the scenario of personalized medicine, targeted therapies are currently the focus of cancer drug development. These drugs can block the growth and spread of tumor cells by interfering with key molecules involved in malignancy, such as receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). MET and Recepteur d’Origine Nantais (RON), which are RTKs frequently overactivated in gastric cancer, are glycoprotein receptors whose activation have been shown to be modulated by the cellular glycosylation. In this work, we address the role of sialylation in gastric cancer therapy using an innovative 3D high-throughput cell culture methodology that mimics better the in vivo tumor features. We evaluate the response to targeted treatment of glycoengineered gastric cancer cell models overexpressing the sialyltransferases ST3GAL4 or ST3GAL6 by subjecting 3D spheroids to the tyrosine kinase inhibitor crizotinib. We show here that 3D spheroids of ST3GAL4 or ST3GAL6 overexpressing MKN45 gastric cancer cells are less affected by the inhibitor. In addition, we disclose a potential compensatory pathway via activation of the Insulin Receptor upon crizotinib treatment. Our results suggest that cell sialylation, in addition of being involved in tumor progression, could play a critical role in the response to tyrosine kinase inhibitors in gastric cancer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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19 pages, 2765 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cryptotanshinone from the Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge Attenuates Ethanol-Induced Liver Injury by Activation of AMPK/SIRT1 and Nrf2 Signaling Pathways

by Arulkumar Nagappan, Ji-Hyun Kim, Dae Young Jung and Myeong Ho Jung

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(1), 265; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21010265 - 30 Dec 2019

Cited by 93 | Viewed by 8527

Abstract

Cryptotanshinone (CT), a diterpene that is isolated from Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge, exhibits anti-cancer, anti-oxidative, anti-fibrosis, and anti-inflammatory properties. Here, we examined whether CT administration possess a hepatoprotective effect on chronic ethanol-induced liver injury. We established a chronic alcohol feeding mouse model while using [...] Read more.

Cryptotanshinone (CT), a diterpene that is isolated from Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge, exhibits anti-cancer, anti-oxidative, anti-fibrosis, and anti-inflammatory properties. Here, we examined whether CT administration possess a hepatoprotective effect on chronic ethanol-induced liver injury. We established a chronic alcohol feeding mouse model while using C57BL/6 mice, and examined the liver sections with hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) and Oil Red O (ORO) staining. Further, we analyzed the lipogenesis, fatty acid oxidation, oxidative stress, and inflammation genes by using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and immunoblotting in in vivo, and in vitro while using HepG2 and AML-12 cells. CT treatment significantly ameliorated ethanol-promoted hepatic steatosis, which was consistent with the decreased hepatic triglyceride levels. Interestingly, CT activated the phosphorylation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), and nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) proteins. Importantly, compound C (AMPK inhibitor) significantly blocked the CT-mediated reduction in TG accumulation, but not Ex52735 (SIRT1 inhibitor), which suggested that CT countering ethanol-promoted hepatic steatosis is mediated by AMPK activation. Furthermore, CT significantly inhibited cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) and enhanced both the expression of antioxidant genes and hepatic glutathione levels. Finally, CT inhibited the ethanol-induced inflammation in ethanol-fed mice and HepG2 cells. Overall, CT exhibits a hepatoprotective effect against ethanol-induced liver injury by the inhibition of lipogenesis, oxidative stress, and inflammation through the activation of AMPK/SIRT1 and Nrf2 and the inhibition of CYP2E1. Therefore, CT could be an effective therapeutic agent for treating ethanol-induced liver injury. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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15 pages, 2786 KiB

Open AccessArticle

METTL3 Regulates Osteoblast Differentiation and Inflammatory Response via Smad Signaling and MAPK Signaling

by Yiwen Zhang, Xiaofei Gu, Di Li, Luhui Cai and Qiong Xu

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(1), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21010199 - 27 Dec 2019

Cited by 118 | Viewed by 6260

Abstract

Osteoblasts are crucial bone-building cells that maintain bone homeostasis, whereas inflammatory stimuli can inhibit osteogenesis and activate inflammatory response. N6-methyladenosine (m⁶A) is the most abundant mRNA modification in eukaryotes and plays important roles in multiple biological processes. However, whether m⁶ [...] Read more.

Osteoblasts are crucial bone-building cells that maintain bone homeostasis, whereas inflammatory stimuli can inhibit osteogenesis and activate inflammatory response. N6-methyladenosine (m⁶A) is the most abundant mRNA modification in eukaryotes and plays important roles in multiple biological processes. However, whether m⁶A modification affects osteoblast differentiation and inflammatory response remains unknown. To address this issue, we investigated the expression of the N6-adenosine methyltransferase METTL3 and found that it was upregulated during osteoblast differentiation and downregulated after LPS stimulation. We then knocked down METTL3 and observed decreased levels of osteogenic markers, ALP activity, and mineralized nodules, as well as Smad1/5/9 phosphorylation, in LPS-induced inflammation. METTL3 knockdown promoted the mRNA expression and stability of negative regulators of Smad signaling, Smad7 and Smurf1, the same regulatory pattern identified when the m⁶A-binding protein YTHDF2 was silenced. Moreover, METTL3 depletion enhanced proinflammatory cytokine expression and increased the phosphorylation of ERK, p38, JNK, and p65 in MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways. The increase in cytokine expression was inhibited after MAPK signaling inhibitor treatment. All data suggest that METTL3 knockdown inhibits osteoblast differentiation and Smad-dependent signaling by stabilizing Smad7 and Smurf1 mRNA transcripts via YTHDF2 involvement and activates the inflammatory response by regulating MAPK signaling in LPS-induced inflammation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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17 pages, 2894 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Double Negative Feedback Loop between mTORC1 and AMPK Kinases Guarantees Precise Autophagy Induction upon Cellular Stress

by Marianna Holczer, Bence Hajdú, Tamás Lőrincz, András Szarka, Gábor Bánhegyi and Orsolya Kapuy

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(22), 5543; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20225543 - 7 Nov 2019

Cited by 59 | Viewed by 6405

Abstract

Cellular homeostasis is controlled by an evolutionary conserved cellular digestive process called autophagy. This mechanism is tightly regulated by the two sensor elements called mTORC1 and AMPK. mTORC1 is one of the master regulators of proteostasis, while AMPK maintains cellular energy homeostasis. AMPK [...] Read more.

Cellular homeostasis is controlled by an evolutionary conserved cellular digestive process called autophagy. This mechanism is tightly regulated by the two sensor elements called mTORC1 and AMPK. mTORC1 is one of the master regulators of proteostasis, while AMPK maintains cellular energy homeostasis. AMPK is able to promote autophagy by phosphorylating ULK1, the key inducer of autophagosome formation, while mTORC1 downregulates the self-eating process via ULK1 under nutrient rich conditions. We claim that the feedback loops of the AMPK–mTORC1–ULK1 regulatory triangle guarantee the appropriate response mechanism when nutrient and/or energy supply changes. In our opinion, there is an essential double negative feedback loop between mTORC1 and AMPK. Namely, not only does AMPK downregulate mTORC1, but mTORC1 also inhibits AMPK and this inhibition is required to keep AMPK inactive at physiological conditions. The aim of the present study was to explore the dynamical characteristic of AMPK regulation upon various cellular stress events. We approached our scientific analysis from a systems biology perspective by incorporating both theoretical and molecular biological techniques. In this study, we confirmed that AMPK is essential to promote autophagy, but is not sufficient to maintain it. AMPK activation is followed by ULK1 induction, where protein has a key role in keeping autophagy active. ULK1-controlled autophagy is always preceded by AMPK activation. With both ULK1 depletion and mTORC1 hyper-activation (i.e., TSC1/2 downregulation), we demonstrate that a double negative feedback loop between AMPK and mTORC1 is crucial for the proper dynamic features of the control network. Our computer simulations have further proved the dynamical characteristic of AMPK–mTORC1–ULK1 controlled cellular nutrient sensing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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14 pages, 4945 KiB

Open AccessArticle

RON Receptor Tyrosine Kinase Regulates Epithelial Mesenchymal Transition and the Expression of Pro-Fibrotic Markers via Src/Smad Signaling in HK-2 and NRK49F Cells

by Jung Sun Park, Hoon-In Choi, Dong-Hyun Kim, Chang Seong Kim, Eun Hui Bae, Seong Kwon Ma and Soo Wan Kim

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(21), 5489; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20215489 - 4 Nov 2019

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4316

Abstract

Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) play important roles in the pathogenic processes of kidney fibrosis. However, the pathophysiological roles of recepteur d’origine nantais (RON), one of the receptor tyrosine kinases, have not yet been defined. We investigated whether the activation or sequence-specific small interfering [...] Read more.

Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) play important roles in the pathogenic processes of kidney fibrosis. However, the pathophysiological roles of recepteur d’origine nantais (RON), one of the receptor tyrosine kinases, have not yet been defined. We investigated whether the activation or sequence-specific small interfering RNA (siRNA) suppression of RON could regulate epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT) and the expression of pro-fibrotic markers, and its underlying molecular mechanisms. Stable cell lines and transient transfection for RON and the transfected cells of siRNA for RON were developed to investigate the molecular mechanisms in human kidney proximal tubular epithelial (HK-2) and interstitial fibroblasts (NRK49F) cells. RON overexpression induced EMT and increased expression of fibrosis-related proteins such as N-cadherin, vimentin, transforming growth factor-β (TGFβ), αSMA, and fibronectin in HK-2 and NRK49F cells. RON overexpression increased various RTKs and the phosphorylation of Src (Y416) and Smad, while inhibition of RON by siRNA attenuated the expression of EMT- and fibrosis-related proteins and decreased RTKs such as insulin-like growth factor receptor (IGFR), fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1), vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR), and platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR), as well as the phosphorylation of Src and Smad pathways. siRNA silencing of Src also attenuated the expression of IGFR, FGFR1, VEGFR, and PDGFR. Inhibition of RON can exert an anti-fibrotic effect by the inhibition of EMT and other RTKs through control of Src and Smad pathways in HK-2 and NRK49F cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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14 pages, 2422 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Immunomodulatory Protein from Nectria haematococca Induces Apoptosis in Lung Cancer Cells via the P53 Pathway

by Jing-Jing Wang, Yan Wang, Lizhen Hou, Fengjiao Xin, Bei Fan, Cong Lu, Lijing Zhang, Fengzhong Wang and Shuying Li

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(21), 5348; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20215348 - 28 Oct 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3396

Abstract

Our previous research has shown that a fungal immunomodulatory protein from Nectria haematococca (FIP-nha) possesses a wide spectrum of anti-tumor activities, and FIP-nha induced A549 apoptosis by negatively regulating the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway based on comparative quantitative proteomics. This study further confirmed that [...] Read more.

Our previous research has shown that a fungal immunomodulatory protein from Nectria haematococca (FIP-nha) possesses a wide spectrum of anti-tumor activities, and FIP-nha induced A549 apoptosis by negatively regulating the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway based on comparative quantitative proteomics. This study further confirmed that the anti-lung cancer activity of FIP-nha was significantly stronger than that of the reported LZ-8 and FIP-fve. Subsequently, ¹H NMR-based metabolomics was applied to comprehensively investigate the underlying mechanism, and a clear separation of FIP-nha-treated and untreated groups was achieved using pattern recognition analysis. Four potential pathways associated with the anti-tumor effect of FIP-nha on A549 cells were identified, and these were mainly involved in glycolysis, taurine and hypotaurine metabolism, fructose and mannose metabolism, and glycerolipid metabolism. Metabolic pathway analysis demonstrated that FIP-nha could induce A549 cell apoptosis partly by regulating the p53 inhibition pathway, which then disrupted the Warburg effect, as well as through other metabolic pathways. Using RT-PCR analysis, FIP-nha-induced apoptosis was confirmed to occur through upregulation of p53 expression. This work highlights the possible use of FIP-nha as a therapeutic adjuvant for lung cancer treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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14 pages, 4999 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tyr198 is the Essential Autophosphorylation Site for STK16 Localization and Kinase Activity

by Junjun Wang, Juanjuan Liu, Xinmiao Ji and Xin Zhang

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(19), 4852; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20194852 - 30 Sep 2019

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2834

Abstract

STK16, reported as a Golgi localized serine/threonine kinase, has been shown to participate in multiple cellular processes, including the TGF-β signaling pathway, TGN protein secretion and sorting, as well as cell cycle and Golgi assembly regulation. However, the mechanisms of the regulation of [...] Read more.

STK16, reported as a Golgi localized serine/threonine kinase, has been shown to participate in multiple cellular processes, including the TGF-β signaling pathway, TGN protein secretion and sorting, as well as cell cycle and Golgi assembly regulation. However, the mechanisms of the regulation of its kinase activity remain underexplored. It was known that STK16 is autophosphorylated at Thr185, Ser197, and Tyr198 of the activation segment in its kinase domain. We found that STK16 localizes to the cell membrane and the Golgi throughout the cell cycle, but mutations in the auto-phosphorylation sites not only alter its subcellular localization but also affect its kinase activity. In particular, the Tyr198 mutation alone significantly reduced the kinase activity of STK16, abolished its Golgi and membrane localization, and affected the cell cycle progression. This study demonstrates that a single site autophosphorylation of STK16 could affect its localization and function, which provides insights into the molecular regulatory mechanism of STK16’s kinase activity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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17 pages, 2661 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Platelet-Derived Growth Factor Receptor and Ionizing Radiation in High Grade Glioma Cell Lines

by Oana Alexandru, Ani-Simona Sevastre, Juan Castro, Stefan-Alexandru Artene, Daniela Elise Tache, Oana Stefana Purcaru, Veronica Sfredel, Ligia Gabriela Tataranu and Anica Dricu

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(19), 4663; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20194663 - 20 Sep 2019

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3157

Abstract

Treatment of high grade gliomas (HGGs) has remained elusive due to their high heterogeneity and aggressiveness. Surgery followed by radiotherapy represents the mainstay of treatment for HGG. However, the unfavorable location of the tumor that usually limits total resection and the resistance to [...] Read more.

Treatment of high grade gliomas (HGGs) has remained elusive due to their high heterogeneity and aggressiveness. Surgery followed by radiotherapy represents the mainstay of treatment for HGG. However, the unfavorable location of the tumor that usually limits total resection and the resistance to radiation therapy are the major therapeutic problems. Chemotherapy with DNA alkylating agent temozolomide is also used to treat HGG, despite modest effects on survival. Disregulation of several growth factor receptors (GFRs) were detected in HGG and receptor amplification in glioblastoma has been suggested to be responsible for heterogeneity propagation through clonal evolution. Molecularly targeted agents inhibiting these membrane proteins have demonstrated significant cytotoxicity in several types of cancer cells when tested in preclinical models. Platelet-derived growth factor receptors (PDGFRs) and associated signaling were found to be implicated in gliomagenesis, moreover, HGG commonly display a Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) autocrine pathway that is not present in normal brain tissues. We have previously shown that both the susceptibility towards PDGFR and the impact of the PDGFR inactivation on the radiation response were different in different HGG cell lines. Therefore, we decided to extend our investigation, using two other HGG cell lines that express PDGFR at the cell surface. Here, we investigated the effect of PDGFR inhibition alone or in combination with gamma radiation in 11 and 15 HGG cell lines. Our results showed that while targeting the PDGFR represents a good means of treatment in HGG, the combination of receptor inhibition with gamma radiation did not result in any discernable difference compared to the single treatment. The PI3K/PTEN/Akt/mTOR and Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK pathways are the major signaling pathways emerging from the GFRs, including PDGFR. Decreased sensitivity to radiation-induced cell death are often associated with redundancy in these pro-survival signaling pathways. Here we found that Phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3K), Extracellular-signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2), or c-Jun N-terminal kinase 1/2 (JNK1/2) inactivation induced radiosensitivity in HGG cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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Review

Jump to: Research

14 pages, 1313 KiB

Open AccessReview

Update on the Roles of Rice MAPK Cascades

by Jie Chen, Lihan Wang and Meng Yuan

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(4), 1679; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22041679 - 7 Feb 2021

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 5690

Abstract

The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades have been validated playing critical roles in diverse aspects of plant biology, from growth and developmental regulation, biotic and abiotic stress responses, to phytohormone signal transduction or responses. A classical MAPK cascade consists of a MAPK kinase [...] Read more.

The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades have been validated playing critical roles in diverse aspects of plant biology, from growth and developmental regulation, biotic and abiotic stress responses, to phytohormone signal transduction or responses. A classical MAPK cascade consists of a MAPK kinase kinase (MAPKKK), a MAPK kinase (MAPKK), and a MAPK. From the 75 MAPKKKs, eight MAPKKs, and 15 MAPKs of rice, a number of them have been functionally deciphered. Here, we update recent advances in knowledge of the roles of rice MAPK cascades, including their components and complicated action modes, their diversified functions controlling rice growth and developmental responses, coordinating resistance to biotic and abiotic stress, and conducting phytohormone signal transduction. Moreover, we summarize several complete MAPK cascades that harbor OsMAPKKK-OsMAPKK-OsMAPK, their interaction with different upstream components and their phosphorylation of diverse downstream substrates to fulfill their multiple roles. Furthermore, we state a comparison of networks of rice MAPK cascades from signal transduction crosstalk to the precise selection of downstream substrates. Additionally, we discuss putative concerns for elucidating the underlying molecular mechanisms and molecular functions of rice MAPK cascades in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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18 pages, 992 KiB

Open AccessReview

Molecular and Clinical Features of EGFR-TKI-Associated Lung Injury

by Tohru Ohmori, Toshimitsu Yamaoka, Koichi Ando, Sojiro Kusumoto, Yasunari Kishino, Ryou Manabe and Hironori Sagara

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(2), 792; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22020792 - 14 Jan 2021

Cited by 62 | Viewed by 8604

Abstract

The tyrosine kinase activity of epidermal growth factor receptors (EGFRs) plays critical roles in cell proliferation, regeneration, tumorigenesis, and anticancer resistance. Non-small-cell lung cancer patients who responded to EGFR-tyrosine kinase inhibitors (EGFR-TKIs) and obtained survival benefits had somatic EGFR mutations. EGFR-TKI-related adverse events [...] Read more.

The tyrosine kinase activity of epidermal growth factor receptors (EGFRs) plays critical roles in cell proliferation, regeneration, tumorigenesis, and anticancer resistance. Non-small-cell lung cancer patients who responded to EGFR-tyrosine kinase inhibitors (EGFR-TKIs) and obtained survival benefits had somatic EGFR mutations. EGFR-TKI-related adverse events (AEs) are usually tolerable and manageable, although serious AEs, including lung injury (specifically, interstitial lung disease (ILD), causing 58% of EGFR-TKI treatment-related deaths), occur infrequently. The etiopathogenesis of EGFR-TKI-induced ILD remains unknown. Risk factors, such as tobacco exposure, pre-existing lung fibrosis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and poor performance status, indicate that lung inflammatory circumstances may worsen with EGFR-TKI treatment because of impaired epithelial healing of lung injuries. There is limited evidence from preclinical and clinical studies of the mechanisms underlying EGFR-TKI-induced ILD in the available literature. Herein, we evaluated the relationship between EGFR-TKIs and AEs, especially ILD. Recent reports on mechanisms inducing lung injury or resistance in cytokine-rich circumstances were reviewed. We discussed the relevance of cytotoxic agents or immunotherapeutic agents in combination with EGFR-TKIs as a potential mechanism of EGFR-TKI-related lung injury and reviewed recent developments in diagnostics and therapeutics that facilitate recovery from lung injury or overcoming resistance to anti-EGFR treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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21 pages, 934 KiB

Open AccessReview

RET Receptor Tyrosine Kinase: Role in Neurodegeneration, Obesity, and Cancer

by Arun Kumar Mahato and Yulia A. Sidorova

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(19), 7108; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21197108 - 26 Sep 2020

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 10632

Abstract

Rearranged during transfection (RET) is the tyrosine kinase receptor that under normal circumstances interacts with ligand at the cell surface and mediates various essential roles in a variety of cellular processes such as proliferation, differentiation, survival, migration, and metabolism. RET plays a pivotal [...] Read more.

Rearranged during transfection (RET) is the tyrosine kinase receptor that under normal circumstances interacts with ligand at the cell surface and mediates various essential roles in a variety of cellular processes such as proliferation, differentiation, survival, migration, and metabolism. RET plays a pivotal role in the development of both peripheral and central nervous systems. RET is expressed from early stages of embryogenesis and remains expressed throughout all life stages. Mutations either activating or inhibiting RET result in several aggressive diseases, namely cancer and Hirschsprung disease. However, the physiological ligand-dependent activation of RET receptor is important for the survival and maintenance of several neuronal populations, appetite, and weight gain control, thus providing an opportunity for the development of disease-modifying therapeutics against neurodegeneration and obesity. In this review, we describe the structure of RET, its signaling, and its role in both normal conditions as well as in several disorders. We highlight the differences in the signaling and outcomes of constitutive and ligand-induced RET activation. Finally, we review the data on recently developed small molecular weight RET agonists and their potential for the treatment of various diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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29 pages, 1459 KiB

Open AccessReview

Current and Future Role of Tyrosine Kinases Inhibition in Thyroid Cancer: From Biology to Therapy

by María San Román Gil, Javier Pozas, Javier Molina-Cerrillo, Joaquín Gómez, Héctor Pian, Miguel Pozas, Alfredo Carrato, Enrique Grande and Teresa Alonso-Gordoa

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(14), 4951; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21144951 - 13 Jul 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4586

Abstract

Thyroid cancer represents a heterogenous disease whose incidence has increased in the last decades. Although three main different subtypes have been described, molecular characterization is progressively being included in the diagnostic and therapeutic algorithm of these patients. In fact, thyroid cancer is a [...] Read more.

Thyroid cancer represents a heterogenous disease whose incidence has increased in the last decades. Although three main different subtypes have been described, molecular characterization is progressively being included in the diagnostic and therapeutic algorithm of these patients. In fact, thyroid cancer is a landmark in the oncological approach to solid tumors as it harbors key genetic alterations driving tumor progression that have been demonstrated to be potential actionable targets. Within this promising and rapid changing scenario, current efforts are directed to improve tumor characterization for an accurate guidance in the therapeutic management. In this sense, it is strongly recommended to perform tissue genotyping to patients that are going to be considered for systemic therapy in order to select the adequate treatment, according to recent clinical trials data. Overall, the aim of this article is to provide a comprehensive review on the molecular biology of thyroid cancer focusing on the key role of tyrosine kinases. Additionally, from a clinical point of view, we provide a thorough perspective, current and future, in the treatment landscape of this tumor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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25 pages, 1991 KiB

Open AccessReview

Fyn Tyrosine Kinase as Harmonizing Factor in Neuronal Functions and Dysfunctions

by Carmela Matrone, Federica Petrillo, Rosarita Nasso and Gabriella Ferretti

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(12), 4444; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21124444 - 22 Jun 2020

Cited by 56 | Viewed by 10033

Abstract

Fyn is a non-receptor or cytoplasmatic tyrosine kinase (TK) belonging to the Src family kinases (SFKs) involved in multiple transduction pathways in the central nervous system (CNS) including synaptic transmission, myelination, axon guidance, and oligodendrocyte formation. Almost one hundred years after the original [...] Read more.

Fyn is a non-receptor or cytoplasmatic tyrosine kinase (TK) belonging to the Src family kinases (SFKs) involved in multiple transduction pathways in the central nervous system (CNS) including synaptic transmission, myelination, axon guidance, and oligodendrocyte formation. Almost one hundred years after the original description of Fyn, this protein continues to attract extreme interest because of its multiplicity of actions in the molecular signaling pathways underlying neurodevelopmental as well as neuropathologic events. This review highlights and summarizes the most relevant recent findings pertinent to the role that Fyn exerts in the brain, emphasizing aspects related to neurodevelopment and synaptic plasticity. Fyn is a common factor in healthy and diseased brains that targets different proteins and shapes different transduction signals according to the neurological conditions. We will primarily focus on Fyn-mediated signaling pathways involved in neuronal differentiation and plasticity that have been subjected to considerable attention lately, opening the fascinating scenario to target Fyn TK for the development of potential therapeutic interventions for the treatment of CNS injuries and certain neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer’s disease. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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30 pages, 8267 KiB

Open AccessReview

Targeting KRAS Mutant Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer: Past, Present and Future

by Iris Z. Uras, Herwig P. Moll and Emilio Casanova

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(12), 4325; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21124325 - 17 Jun 2020

Cited by 97 | Viewed by 9582

Abstract

Lung cancer is the most frequent cancer with an aggressive clinical course and high mortality rates. Most cases are diagnosed at advanced stages when treatment options are limited and the efficacy of chemotherapy is poor. The disease has a complex and heterogeneous background [...] Read more.

Lung cancer is the most frequent cancer with an aggressive clinical course and high mortality rates. Most cases are diagnosed at advanced stages when treatment options are limited and the efficacy of chemotherapy is poor. The disease has a complex and heterogeneous background with non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounting for 85% of patients and lung adenocarcinoma being the most common histological subtype. Almost 30% of adenocarcinomas of the lung are driven by an activating Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (KRAS) mutation. The ability to inhibit the oncogenic KRAS has been the holy grail of cancer research and the search for inhibitors is immensely ongoing as KRAS-mutated tumors are among the most aggressive and refractory to treatment. Therapeutic strategies tailored for KRAS⁺ NSCLC rely on the blockage of KRAS functional output, cellular dependencies, metabolic features, KRAS membrane associations, direct targeting of KRAS and immunotherapy. In this review, we provide an update on the most recent advances in anti-KRAS therapy for lung tumors with mechanistic insights into biological diversity and potential clinical implications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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13 pages, 2444 KiB

Open AccessReview

Structure, Function, and Regulation of the SRMS Tyrosine Kinase

by Chakia J. McClendon and W. Todd Miller

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(12), 4233; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21124233 - 14 Jun 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3410

Abstract

Src-related kinase lacking C-terminal regulatory tyrosine and N-terminal myristoylation sites (SRMS) is a tyrosine kinase that was discovered in 1994. It is a member of a family of nonreceptor tyrosine kinases that also includes Brk (PTK6) and Frk. Compared with other tyrosine kinases, [...] Read more.

Src-related kinase lacking C-terminal regulatory tyrosine and N-terminal myristoylation sites (SRMS) is a tyrosine kinase that was discovered in 1994. It is a member of a family of nonreceptor tyrosine kinases that also includes Brk (PTK6) and Frk. Compared with other tyrosine kinases, there is relatively little information about the structure, function, and regulation of SRMS. In this review, we summarize the current state of knowledge regarding SRMS, including recent results aimed at identifying downstream signaling partners. We also present a structural model for the enzyme and discuss the potential involvement of SRMS in cancer cell signaling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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27 pages, 2335 KiB

Open AccessReview

Phosphorylation Sites in Protein Kinases and Phosphatases Regulated by Formyl Peptide Receptor 2 Signaling

by Maria Carmela Annunziata, Melania Parisi, Gabriella Esposito, Gabriella Fabbrocini, Rosario Ammendola and Fabio Cattaneo

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(11), 3818; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21113818 - 27 May 2020

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6286

Abstract

FPR1, FPR2, and FPR3 are members of Formyl Peptides Receptors (FPRs) family belonging to the GPCR superfamily. FPR2 is a low affinity receptor for formyl peptides and it is considered the most promiscuous member of this family. Intracellular signaling cascades triggered by FPRs [...] Read more.

FPR1, FPR2, and FPR3 are members of Formyl Peptides Receptors (FPRs) family belonging to the GPCR superfamily. FPR2 is a low affinity receptor for formyl peptides and it is considered the most promiscuous member of this family. Intracellular signaling cascades triggered by FPRs include the activation of different protein kinases and phosphatase, as well as tyrosine kinase receptors transactivation. Protein kinases and phosphatases act coordinately and any impairment of their activation or regulation represents one of the most common causes of several human diseases. Several phospho-sites has been identified in protein kinases and phosphatases, whose role may be to expand the repertoire of molecular mechanisms of regulation or may be necessary for fine-tuning of switch properties. We previously performed a phospho-proteomic analysis in FPR2-stimulated cells that revealed, among other things, not yet identified phospho-sites on six protein kinases and one protein phosphatase. Herein, we discuss on the selective phosphorylation of Serine/Threonine-protein kinase N2, Serine/Threonine-protein kinase PRP4 homolog, Serine/Threonine-protein kinase MARK2, Serine/Threonine-protein kinase PAK4, Serine/Threonine-protein kinase 10, Dual specificity mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 2, and Protein phosphatase 1 regulatory subunit 14A, triggered by FPR2 stimulation. We also describe the putative FPR2-dependent signaling cascades upstream to these specific phospho-sites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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17 pages, 932 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Regulation of Intestinal Mucosal Barrier by Myosin Light Chain Kinase/Rho Kinases

by Younggeon Jin and Anthony T. Blikslager

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(10), 3550; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21103550 - 18 May 2020

Cited by 79 | Viewed by 9451

Abstract

The intestinal epithelial apical junctional complex, which includes tight and adherens junctions, contributes to the intestinal barrier function via their role in regulating paracellular permeability. Myosin light chain II (MLC-2), has been shown to be a critical regulatory protein in altering paracellular permeability [...] Read more.

The intestinal epithelial apical junctional complex, which includes tight and adherens junctions, contributes to the intestinal barrier function via their role in regulating paracellular permeability. Myosin light chain II (MLC-2), has been shown to be a critical regulatory protein in altering paracellular permeability during gastrointestinal disorders. Previous studies have demonstrated that phosphorylation of MLC-2 is a biochemical marker for perijunctional actomyosin ring contraction, which increases paracellular permeability by regulating the apical junctional complex. The phosphorylation of MLC-2 is dominantly regulated by myosin light chain kinase- (MLCK-) and Rho-associated coiled-coil containing protein kinase- (ROCK-) mediated pathways. In this review, we aim to summarize the current state of knowledge regarding the role of MLCK- and ROCK-mediated pathways in the regulation of the intestinal barrier during normal homeostasis and digestive diseases. Additionally, we will also suggest potential therapeutic targeting of MLCK- and ROCK-associated pathways in gastrointestinal disorders that compromise the intestinal barrier. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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22 pages, 582 KiB

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Phosphorylation Signaling in APP Processing in Alzheimer’s Disease

by Tao Zhang, Dongmei Chen and Tae Ho Lee

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(1), 209; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21010209 - 27 Dec 2019

Cited by 77 | Viewed by 11319

Abstract

The abnormal accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) in the central nervous system is a hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The regulation of the processing of the single- transmembrane amyloid precursor protein (APP) plays an important role in the generation of Aβ in the brain. [...] Read more.

The abnormal accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) in the central nervous system is a hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The regulation of the processing of the single- transmembrane amyloid precursor protein (APP) plays an important role in the generation of Aβ in the brain. The phosphorylation of APP and key enzymes involved in the proteolytic processing of APP has been demonstrated to be critical for modulating the generation of Aβ by either altering the subcellular localization of APP or changing the enzymatic activities of the secretases responsible for APP processing. In addition, the phosphorylation may also have an impact on the physiological function of these proteins. In this review, we summarize the kinases and signaling pathways that may participate in regulating the phosphorylation of APP and secretases and how this further affects the function and processing of APP and Aβ pathology. We also discuss the potential of approaches that modulate these phosphorylation-signaling pathways or kinases as interventions for AD pathology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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21 pages, 1844 KiB

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Receptor Tyrosine Kinases in Development: Insights from Drosophila

by Sarah Mele and Travis K. Johnson

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(1), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21010188 - 26 Dec 2019

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 13756

Abstract

Cell-to-cell communication mediates a plethora of cellular decisions and behaviors that are crucial for the correct and robust development of multicellular organisms. Many of these signals are encoded in secreted hormones or growth factors that bind to and activate cell surface receptors, to [...] Read more.

Cell-to-cell communication mediates a plethora of cellular decisions and behaviors that are crucial for the correct and robust development of multicellular organisms. Many of these signals are encoded in secreted hormones or growth factors that bind to and activate cell surface receptors, to transmit the cue intracellularly. One of the major superfamilies of cell surface receptors are the receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). For nearly half a century RTKs have been the focus of intensive study due to their ability to alter fundamental aspects of cell biology, such as cell proliferation, growth, and shape, and because of their central importance in diseases such as cancer. Studies in model organisms such a Drosophila melanogaster have proved invaluable for identifying new conserved RTK pathway components, delineating their contributions, and for the discovery of conserved mechanisms that control RTK-signaling events. Here we provide a brief overview of the RTK superfamily and the general mechanisms used in their regulation. We further highlight the functions of several RTKs that govern distinct cell-fate decisions in Drosophila and explore how their activities are developmentally controlled. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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20 pages, 1114 KiB

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Targeting Angiogenesis in Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumors: Resistance Mechanisms

by Javier Pozas, María San Román, Teresa Alonso-Gordoa, Miguel Pozas, Laura Caracuel, Alfredo Carrato and Javier Molina-Cerrillo

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(19), 4949; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20194949 - 8 Oct 2019

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4213

Abstract

Despite being infrequent tumors, the incidence and prevalence of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (P-NETs) has been rising over the past few decades. In recent years, rigorous phase III clinical trials have been conducted, allowing the approval of several drugs that have become the standard [...] Read more.

Despite being infrequent tumors, the incidence and prevalence of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (P-NETs) has been rising over the past few decades. In recent years, rigorous phase III clinical trials have been conducted, allowing the approval of several drugs that have become the standard of care in these patients. Although various treatments are used in clinical practice, including somatostatin analogues (SSAs), biological therapies like sunitinib or everolimus, peptide receptor radionuclide therapy (PRRT) or even chemotherapy, a consensus regarding the optimal sequence of treatment has not yet been reached. Notwithstanding, sunitinib is largely used in these patients after the promising results shown in SUN111 phase III clinical trial. However, both prompt progression as well as tumor recurrence after initial response have been reported, suggesting the existence of primary and acquired resistances to this antiangiogenic drug. In this review, we aim to summarize the most relevant mechanisms of angiogenesis resistance that are key contributors of tumor progression and dissemination. Furthermore, several targeted molecules acting selectively against these pathways have shown promising results in preclinical models, and preliminary results from ongoing clinical trials are awaited. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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13 pages, 777 KiB

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Protein Kinase CK2—A Putative Target for the Therapy of Diabetes Mellitus?

by Emmanuel Ampofo, Lisa Nalbach, Michael D. Menger, Mathias Montenarh and Claudia Götz

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(18), 4398; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20184398 - 7 Sep 2019

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4429

Abstract

Since diabetes is a global epidemic, the development of novel therapeutic strategies for the treatment of this disease is of major clinical interest. Diabetes is differentiated in two types: type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). T1DM arises from [...] Read more.

Since diabetes is a global epidemic, the development of novel therapeutic strategies for the treatment of this disease is of major clinical interest. Diabetes is differentiated in two types: type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). T1DM arises from an autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing β-cells whereas T2DM is characterized by an insulin resistance, an impaired insulin reaction of the target cells, and/or dysregulated insulin secretion. In the past, a growing number of studies have reported on the important role of the protein kinase CK2 in the regulation of the survival and endocrine function of pancreatic β-cells. In fact, inhibition of CK2 is capable of reducing cytokine-induced loss of β-cells and increases insulin expression as well as secretion by various pathways that are regulated by reversible phosphorylation of proteins. Moreover, CK2 inhibition modulates pathways that are involved in the development of diabetes and prevents signal transduction, leading to late complications such as diabetic retinopathy. Hence, targeting CK2 may represent a novel therapeutic strategy for the treatment of diabetes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinase Signal Transduction 2.0)

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