Pathogens

10 pages, 531 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Concomitant Syndromic Diagnosis of Mpox and Other Vesicular Viruses in Patients with Skin and Genital Lesions

by Maria Beatrice Valli, Antonella Vulcano, Martina Rueca, Giulia Matusali, Valentina Mazzotta, Emanuele Nicastri, Enrico Girardi, Carla Fontana, Andrea Antinori and Fabrizio Maggi

Pathogens 2024, 13(3), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13030207 - 27 Feb 2024

Viewed by 1581

Abstract

The recent multi-country outbreak of the zoonotic monkeypox virus (MPXV) infection in humans without an epidemiological link with endemic areas has raised concerns about the route of transmission. Since the infection spread largely among men who have sex with men who, in most [...] Read more.

The recent multi-country outbreak of the zoonotic monkeypox virus (MPXV) infection in humans without an epidemiological link with endemic areas has raised concerns about the route of transmission. Since the infection spread largely among men who have sex with men who, in most cases, presented primary lesions of the genital and oral mucosa, sexual transmission has been proposed. In the present study, we retrospectively evaluated specimens of vesicular lesions collected from the skin and genital tract of 35 patients (23 positive and 12 negative) presenting at our Institute for monkeypox (mpox) diagnosis by using a novel molecular syndromic vesicular virus panel (VVP) assay. All MPXV-positive samples but one was confirmed; however, the viral syndromic analysis revealed that 8.6% of them were coinfected with one or more viruses, and 17% had at least a virus different from the MPXV. The percentage of coinfections increased to more than 25% when nonviral pathogens, such as gonorrhea and syphilis, were also considered. These results show the usefulness of syndromic diagnosis in cases where MPXV is suspected (and vice versa) and at the same time highlight that the broader screening of sexually transmitted infections in the population with high-risk sexual behavior is critical to ensure a complete etiology and appropriate treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)

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10 pages, 276 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Inflammatory Patterns Associated with Legionella in HIV and Pneumonia Coinfections

by Breanne M. Head, Adriana Trajtman, Ruochen Mao, Kathryn Bernard, Lázaro Vélez, Diana Marin, Lucelly López, Zulma Vanessa Rueda and Yoav Keynan

Pathogens 2024, 13(2), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13020173 - 14 Feb 2024

Viewed by 1444

Abstract

Legionella infections have a propensity for occurring in HIV-infected individuals, with immunosuppressed individuals tending to present with more severe disease. However, understanding regarding the Legionella host response in immune compromised individuals is lacking. This study investigated the inflammatory profiles associated with Legionella infection [...] Read more.

Legionella infections have a propensity for occurring in HIV-infected individuals, with immunosuppressed individuals tending to present with more severe disease. However, understanding regarding the Legionella host response in immune compromised individuals is lacking. This study investigated the inflammatory profiles associated with Legionella infection in patients hospitalized with HIV and pneumonia in Medellín, Colombia from February 2007 to April 2014, and correlated these profiles with clinical outcomes. Sample aliquots from the Colombian cohort were shipped to Canada where Legionella infections and systemic cytokine profiles were determined using real-time PCR and bead-based technology, respectively. To determine the effect of Legionella coinfection on clinical outcome, a patient database was consulted, comparing laboratory results and outcomes between Legionella-positive and -negative individuals. Principal component analysis revealed higher plasma concentrations of eotaxin, IP-10 and MCP-1 (p = 0.0046) during Legionella infection. Individuals with this immune profile also had higher rates of intensive care unit admissions (adjusted relative risk 1.047 [95% confidence interval 1.027–1.066]). Results demonstrate that systemic markers of monocyte/macrophage activation and differentiation (eotaxin, MCP-1, and IP-10) are associated with Legionella infection and worse patient outcomes. Further investigations are warranted to determine how this cytokine profile may play a role in Legionella pneumonia pathogenesis or immunity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immunity to Respiratory Infections)

16 pages, 1354 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Comparison of the Antibiotic Resistance of Escherichia coli Populations from Water and Biofilm in River Environments

by Aline Skof, Michael Koller, Rita Baumert, Jürgen Hautz, Fritz Treiber, Clemens Kittinger and Gernot Zarfel

Pathogens 2024, 13(2), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13020171 - 13 Feb 2024

Viewed by 3215

Abstract

Antibiotic-resistant, facultative pathogenic bacteria are commonly found in surface water; however, the factors influencing the spread and stabilization of antibiotic resistance in this habitat, particularly the role of biofilms, are not fully understood. The extent to which bacterial populations in biofilms or sediments [...] Read more.

Antibiotic-resistant, facultative pathogenic bacteria are commonly found in surface water; however, the factors influencing the spread and stabilization of antibiotic resistance in this habitat, particularly the role of biofilms, are not fully understood. The extent to which bacterial populations in biofilms or sediments exacerbate the problem for specific antibiotic classes or more broadly remains unanswered. In this study, we investigated the differences between the bacterial populations found in the surface water and sediment/biofilm of the Mur River and the Drava River in Austria. Samples of Escherichia coli were collected from both the water and sediment at two locations per river: upstream and downstream of urban areas that included a sewage treatment plant. The isolates were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing against 21 antibiotics belonging to seven distinct classes. Additionally, isolates exhibiting either extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) or carbapenemase phenotypes were further analyzed for specific antimicrobial resistance genes. E. coli isolates collected from all locations exhibited resistance to at least one of the tested antibiotics; on average, isolates from the Mur and Drava rivers showed 25.85% and 23.66% resistance, respectively. The most prevalent resistance observed was to ampicillin, amoxicillin–clavulanic acid, tetracycline, and nalidixic acid. Surprisingly, there was a similar proportion of resistant bacteria observed in both open water and sediment samples. The difference in resistance levels between the samples collected upstream and downstream of the cities was minimal. Out of all 831 isolates examined, 13 were identified as carrying ESBL genes, with 1 of these isolates also containing the gene for the KPC-2 carbapenemase. There were no significant differences between the biofilm (sediment) and open water samples in the occurrence of antibiotic resistance. For the E. coli populations in the examined rivers, the different factors in water and the sediment do not appear to influence the stability of resistance. No significant differences in antimicrobial resistance were observed between the bacterial populations collected from the biofilm (sediment) and open-water samples in either river. The different factors in water and the sediment do not appear to influence the stability of resistance. The minimal differences observed upstream and downstream of the cities could indicate that the river population already exhibits generalized resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Pathogens)

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12 pages, 837 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Epidemiology of Anal Human Papillomavirus (HPV) in HIV-Positive and HIV-Negative Women and Men: A Ten-Year Retrospective Observational Study in Rome (Italy)

by Matteo Fracella, Giuseppe Oliveto, Piergiorgio Roberto, Lilia Cinti, Massimo Gentile, Eleonora Coratti, Gabriella D’Ettorre, Eugenio Nelson Cavallari, Francesco Romano, Letizia Santinelli, Luca Maddaloni, Federica Frasca, Carolina Scagnolari, Guido Antonelli and Alessandra Pierangeli

Pathogens 2024, 13(2), 163; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13020163 - 11 Feb 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1827

Abstract

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) commonly infect the anogenital mucosa; most infections are transient, but a fraction of those caused by high-risk (HR) types persist and may lead to anogenital cancer. The epidemiology of HPV genotypes in anal infections in groups at different risk for [...] Read more.

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) commonly infect the anogenital mucosa; most infections are transient, but a fraction of those caused by high-risk (HR) types persist and may lead to anogenital cancer. The epidemiology of HPV genotypes in anal infections in groups at different risk for anal cancer has not been well described in Italy. This retrospective study reports the results of HPV DNA testing and complete genotyping performed on anal swabs from 691 female and male patients attending proctology clinics in Rome during 2012–2021; one-third had repeated testing. Cumulative HPV positivity in 1212 anal swabs was approximately 60%, was not age related, and showed an increasing trend over the study period. HPV rates differed significantly by sex and HIV status: HIV-negative women had the lowest (43.6%) and HIV-positive men the highest (83.5%) HPV prevalence. HIV-positive men had more oncogenic HPV genotypes detected, more multiple infections, and the highest frequency of persistent infections. Two-thirds of all infections were vaccine-preventable. This study found that anal HPV infection rates are still elevated and even increasing in groups at low and high risk of developing anal cancer. Prevention programs need to be improved to reduce rates of anal infection in young women and men. Full article

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19 pages, 2526 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Deep Sequencing Strategy for Investigation of Virus Variants within African Swine Fever Virus-Infected Pigs

by Camille Melissa Johnston, Ann Sofie Olesen, Louise Lohse, Agnete le Maire Madsen, Anette Bøtner, Graham J. Belsham and Thomas Bruun Rasmussen

Pathogens 2024, 13(2), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13020154 - 8 Feb 2024

Viewed by 1815

Abstract

African swine fever virus (ASFV) is the causative agent of African swine fever, an economically important disease of pigs, often with a high case fatality rate. ASFV has demonstrated low genetic diversity among isolates collected within Eurasia. To explore the influence of viral [...] Read more.

African swine fever virus (ASFV) is the causative agent of African swine fever, an economically important disease of pigs, often with a high case fatality rate. ASFV has demonstrated low genetic diversity among isolates collected within Eurasia. To explore the influence of viral variants on clinical outcomes and infection dynamics in pigs experimentally infected with ASFV, we have designed a deep sequencing strategy. The variant analysis revealed unique SNPs at <10% frequency in several infected pigs as well as some SNPs that were found in more than one pig. In addition, a deletion of 10,487 bp (resulting in the complete loss of 21 genes) was present at a nearly 100% frequency in the ASFV DNA from one pig at position 6362-16849. This deletion was also found to be present at low levels in the virus inoculum and in two other infected pigs. The current methodology can be used for the currently circulating Eurasian ASFVs and also adapted to other ASFV strains and genotypes. Comprehensive deep sequencing is critical for following ASFV molecular evolution, especially for the identification of modifications that affect virus virulence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Viral Pathogens)

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18 pages, 3443 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Epidemiological Data and Antimicrobial Resistance of Campylobacter spp. in Portugal from 13 Years of Surveillance

by Andreia Duarte, Luísa Pereira, Maria-Leonor Lemos, Miguel Pinto, João Carlos Rodrigues, Rui Matias, Andrea Santos, PTCampyNet and Mónica Oleastro

Pathogens 2024, 13(2), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13020147 - 6 Feb 2024

Viewed by 2474

Abstract

This study extensively analyzed campylobacteriosis surveillance in Portugal from 2009 to 2021, aiming to investigate demographic shifts, seasonal variations, and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) within Campylobacter isolates. Surveillance network and sentinel laboratory-based system data revealed a substantial under-notification of campylobacteriosis cases, suggesting an underestimated [...] Read more.

This study extensively analyzed campylobacteriosis surveillance in Portugal from 2009 to 2021, aiming to investigate demographic shifts, seasonal variations, and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) within Campylobacter isolates. Surveillance network and sentinel laboratory-based system data revealed a substantial under-notification of campylobacteriosis cases, suggesting an underestimated disease burden. Notification rates exhibited a paradigm shift, with a notable prevalence among the pediatric population, particularly in children aged 1–4 years, diverging from European reports. Additionally, an emerging trend of Campylobacter infections in younger adults (15–44 years) was observed. The study unveiled a unique seasonal distribution of cases, defying typical summer peaks seen elsewhere. AMR analysis revealed high resistance to ciprofloxacin and tetracycline, in both C. jejuni (93.7% and 79.2%, respectively) and C. coli (96.5% and 93.2%, respectively), stable throughout the studied period (2013–2021). C. coli exhibited significantly higher resistance to erythromycin, gentamicin, ampicillin and ertapenem compared to C. jejuni (p < 0.001). Multilocus Sequence Typing (MLST) data demonstrated the distribution of resistance markers across diverse sequence types, challenging the notion of a clonal origin for multidrug-resistant isolates. In conclusion, the study highlights the need for enhanced surveillance and raises concerns about alarming AMR levels, recommending the implementation of whole-genome sequencing (WGS)-based surveillance for a deeper comprehension of disease patterns and an evolving AMR landscape. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology and Molecular Pathogenesis of Antimicrobial Resistance and Virulence for Foodborne Pathogens)

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18 pages, 400 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Past, Present, and Future in the Diagnosis of a Neglected Sexually Transmitted Infection: Trichomoniasis

by Alexandra Ibáñez-Escribano and Juan José Nogal-Ruiz

Pathogens 2024, 13(2), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13020126 - 29 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2793

Abstract

More than one million curable sexually transmitted infections occur every day. Trichomonas vaginalis is one of the main infections responsible for these epidemiological data; however, the diagnosis of this protozoan is still mainly based on microscopic and culture identification. The commercialization of immunological [...] Read more.

More than one million curable sexually transmitted infections occur every day. Trichomonas vaginalis is one of the main infections responsible for these epidemiological data; however, the diagnosis of this protozoan is still mainly based on microscopic and culture identification. The commercialization of immunological tests and the development of molecular techniques have improved the sensitivity of classical methods. Nevertheless, the fact that trichomoniasis is a neglected parasitic infection hinders the development of novel techniques and their implementation in routine diagnosis. This review article shows the different methods developed to identify T. vaginalis in population and the difficulties in diagnosing male and asymptomatic patients. The importance of including this parasite in routine gynecological screening, especially in pregnant women, and the importance of considering T. vaginalis as an indicator of high-risk sexual behavior are also discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations and Developments in the Diagnosis of Sexually Transmitted Diseases)

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13 pages, 603 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Ehrlichia canis and Rickettsia conorii Infections in Shelter Dogs: Seropositivity and Implications for Public Health

by Paulo Afonso, Ana Patrícia Lopes, Hélder Quintas, Luís Cardoso and Ana Cláudia Coelho

Pathogens 2024, 13(2), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13020129 - 29 Jan 2024

Viewed by 2237

Abstract

A cross-sectional study was conducted to gain insight into the epidemiology of canine ehrlichiosis and rickettsiosis in northern Portugal. Specific IgG antibodies to Ehrlichia canis were analysed using a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and antibodies to Rickettsia conorii were analysed using a [...] Read more.

A cross-sectional study was conducted to gain insight into the epidemiology of canine ehrlichiosis and rickettsiosis in northern Portugal. Specific IgG antibodies to Ehrlichia canis were analysed using a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and antibodies to Rickettsia conorii were analysed using a commercial indirect immunofluorescence antibody test (IFAT). A total of 113 dogs from two different shelters were sampled, and seroprevalence values of 0.9% (95% confidence (CI): 0.2–4.8%) for E. canis and 9.7 (95% CI: 5.5–16.6%) for R. conorii were found. Multiple logistic regression investigated risk factors for seropositivity. The odds ratios (ORs) of R. conorii seropositivity were higher for female dogs (OR = 6.429; 95% CI: 1.201–34.407). Dogs seropositive for co-infection (E. canis + R. conorii) were more frequently observed among females (OR = 7.606; CI 95%: 1.478–39.132) and in Shelter 2 (OR = 18.229; 95% CI: 2.190–151.756). These findings show that shelter dogs in northern Portugal are exposed to E. canis and R. conorii, which can affect both canines and humans. It is imperative to adopt a One Health approach to educate the public about the hazards of canine zoonoses and develop legislation and procedures to control their spread and preserve public health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Zoonotic Vector-Borne Diseases of Companion Animals)

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18 pages, 626 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Mpox Awareness, Risk Reduction, and Vaccine Acceptance among People with HIV in Washington, DC

by Elisabeth W. Andersen, Paige Kulie, Amanda D. Castel, Jose Lucar, Debra Benator, Alan E. Greenberg and Anne Monroe

Pathogens 2024, 13(2), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13020124 - 28 Jan 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1455

Abstract

People with HIV (PWH) are disproportionally affected by mpox and at risk of severe complications. We assessed mpox knowledge, adoption of preventive behaviors, and vaccination attitudes among PWH enrolled in a longitudinal HIV cohort in Washington, DC, the DC Cohort. We conducted uni- [...] Read more.

People with HIV (PWH) are disproportionally affected by mpox and at risk of severe complications. We assessed mpox knowledge, adoption of preventive behaviors, and vaccination attitudes among PWH enrolled in a longitudinal HIV cohort in Washington, DC, the DC Cohort. We conducted uni- and multivariable analyses comparing participants by vaccination status and HIV risk group, and multinomial regression to identify factors associated with vaccine acceptance. Among 430 PWH, 378 (87.9%) were aware of mpox. Among 373 participants with vaccination status data, 101 (27.1%) were vaccinated, 129 (34.6%) planned to vaccinate, and 143 (38.3%) did not plan to vaccinate. The three vaccination groups differed significantly by age, race, education, HIV risk group, recent STI status, and level of mpox worry (all p < 0.05). A higher proportion of men who have sex with men (MSM) reported limiting their number of sexual partners compared to non-MSM (p < 0.0001). Multinomial regression models comparing vaccinated to unvaccinated PWH found age, education, mode of HIV transmission/gender, and survey period were significantly associated with vaccination status (all p < 0.05). High levels of mpox awareness were observed among this cohort of PWH with more MSM employing risk reduction behaviors and being vaccinated. Ensuring that PWH, regardless of gender, sexual orientation, or age, understand the risks of mpox may improve vaccination uptake. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Epidemic of Mpox)

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11 pages, 703 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Persistence of Anti-Rabies Antibody Response in Horses Following Vaccination

by Sharon Tirosh-Levy, Leehe Shaiman Barom, Shiri Novak, Marina Eyngor, Gili Schvartz, Boris Yakobson and Amir Steinman

Pathogens 2024, 13(2), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13020125 - 28 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1577

Abstract

Rabies is a fatal zoonotic disease affecting all mammalian species. It is caused by the rabies virus and is prevalent worldwide. Horses are not commonly infected with rabies but their vaccination is recommended due to the potential zoonotic risk. This study aimed to [...] Read more.

Rabies is a fatal zoonotic disease affecting all mammalian species. It is caused by the rabies virus and is prevalent worldwide. Horses are not commonly infected with rabies but their vaccination is recommended due to the potential zoonotic risk. This study aimed to evaluate the duration of immunity following rabies vaccination in horses. A total of 126 serum samples were collected from 93 horses, vaccinated 6 to 91 months before sampling. Rabies-virus-neutralizing antibody (RVNA) levels were evaluated using the Rabies Fluorescent Focus Inhibition Test (RFFIT). A protective RVNA titer of above 0.5 IU/mL was found in 112 (88.9%) of the samples and 84 (90.3%) of the horses. Antibody titers declined over time (rho = −0.271, p = 0.002); however, there was no significant difference in antibody titers or the prevalence of unprotected horses between the time intervals following vaccination. Purebred horses had lower antibody titers (p = 0.024). The response to booster vaccination was inspected in ten horses, and increased antibody titers were found in eight of them. The results of this study demonstrate the prolonged persistence of protective immunity in horses following rabies vaccination, in some cases, for up to eight years. Therefore, the current annual vaccination strategy should be re-evaluated. A rate of 9.7% of poor responders should be considered from an epidemiological perspective in order to minimize the risk of emergence of the disease. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Rabies: Infection, Immunity, Therapy and Drug Development)

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17 pages, 767 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Clostridioides difficile Infection: Diagnosis and Treatment Challenges

by John E. Markantonis, John T. Fallon, Rajat Madan and Md Zahidul Alam

Pathogens 2024, 13(2), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13020118 - 27 Jan 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3759

Abstract

Clostridioides difficile is the most important cause of healthcare-associated diarrhea in the United States. The high incidence and recurrence rates of C. difficile infection (CDI), associated with high morbidity and mortality, pose a public health challenge. Although antibiotics targeting C. difficile bacteria are [...] Read more.

Clostridioides difficile is the most important cause of healthcare-associated diarrhea in the United States. The high incidence and recurrence rates of C. difficile infection (CDI), associated with high morbidity and mortality, pose a public health challenge. Although antibiotics targeting C. difficile bacteria are the first treatment choice, antibiotics also disrupt the indigenous gut flora and, therefore, create an environment that is favorable for recurrent CDI. The challenge of treating CDI is further exacerbated by the rise of antibiotic-resistant strains of C. difficile, placing it among the top five most urgent antibiotic resistance threats in the USA. The evolution of antibiotic resistance in C. difficile involves the acquisition of new resistance mechanisms, which can be shared among various bacterial species and different C. difficile strains within clinical and community settings. This review provides a summary of commonly used diagnostic tests and antibiotic treatment strategies for CDI. In addition, it discusses antibiotic treatment and its resistance mechanisms. This review aims to enhance our current understanding and pinpoint knowledge gaps in antimicrobial resistance mechanisms in C. difficile, with an emphasis on CDI therapies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nosocomial Infection and Antimicrobial Resistance)

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20 pages, 3614 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Metatranscriptomic Sequencing of Medically Important Mosquitoes Reveals Extensive Diversity of RNA Viruses and Other Microbial Communities in Western Australia

by Binit Lamichhane, Craig Brockway, Kimberly Evasco, Jay Nicholson, Peter J. Neville, Avram Levy, David Smith and Allison Imrie

Pathogens 2024, 13(2), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13020107 - 25 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1504

Abstract

Mosquitoes harbor a wide diversity of microorganisms, including viruses that are human pathogens, or that are insect specific. We used metatranscriptomics, an unbiased high-throughput molecular approach, to describe the composition of viral and other microbial communities in six medically important mosquito species from [...] Read more.

Mosquitoes harbor a wide diversity of microorganisms, including viruses that are human pathogens, or that are insect specific. We used metatranscriptomics, an unbiased high-throughput molecular approach, to describe the composition of viral and other microbial communities in six medically important mosquito species from across Western Australia: Aedes vigilax, Culex annulirostris, Cx. australicus, Cx. globocoxitus, Cx. pipiens biotype molestus, and Cx. quinquefasciatus. We identified 42 viral species, including 13 novel viruses, from 19 families. Culex mosquitoes exhibited a significantly higher diversity of viruses than Aedes mosquitoes, and no virus was shared between the two genera. Comparison of mosquito populations revealed a heterogenous distribution of viruses between geographical regions and between closely related species, suggesting that geography and host species may play a role in shaping virome composition. We also detected bacterial and parasitic microorganisms, among which Wolbachia bacteria were detected in three members of the Cx. pipiens complex, Cx. australicus, Cx. pipiens biotype molestus, and Cx. quinquefasciatus. In summary, our unbiased metatranscriptomics approach provides important insights into viral and other microbial diversity in Western Australian mosquitoes that vector medically important viruses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Characterizing Infectious Diseases Using a 'Total Infectome' Approach)

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17 pages, 4501 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Multivalent Epigraph Hemagglutinin Vaccine Protects against Influenza B Virus in Mice

by Erika Petro-Turnquist, Brigette Corder Kampfe, Amber Gadeken, Matthew J. Pekarek and Eric A. Weaver

Pathogens 2024, 13(2), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13020097 - 23 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1754

Abstract

Influenza B virus is a respiratory pathogen that contributes to seasonal epidemics, accounts for approximately 25% of global influenza infections, and can induce severe disease in young children. While vaccination is the most commonly used method of preventing influenza infections, current vaccines only [...] Read more.

Influenza B virus is a respiratory pathogen that contributes to seasonal epidemics, accounts for approximately 25% of global influenza infections, and can induce severe disease in young children. While vaccination is the most commonly used method of preventing influenza infections, current vaccines only induce strain-specific responses and have suboptimal efficacy when mismatched from circulating strains. Further, two influenza B virus lineages have been described, B/Yamagata-like and B/Victoria-like, and the limited cross-reactivity between the two lineages provides an additional barrier in developing a universal influenza B virus vaccine. Here, we report a novel multivalent vaccine using computationally designed Epigraph hemagglutinin proteins targeting both the B/Yamagata-like and B/Victoria-like lineages. When compared to the quadrivalent commercial vaccine, the Epigraph vaccine demonstrated increased breadth of neutralizing antibody and T cell responses. After lethal heterologous influenza B virus challenge, mice immunized with the Epigraph vaccine were completely protected against both weight loss and mortality. The superior cross-reactive immunity conferred by the Epigraph vaccine immunogens supports their continued investigation as a universal influenza B virus vaccine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members’ Collection Series: Molecular Epidemiology, Diagnostics and Management of Viral Pathogens)

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10 pages, 1105 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Impact of Pathogens on Sepsis Prevalence and Outcome

by Birte Dyck, Matthias Unterberg, Michael Adamzik and Björn Koos

Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010089 - 20 Jan 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3262

Abstract

Sepsis, a severe global healthcare challenge, is characterized by significant morbidity and mortality. The 2016 redefinition by the Third International Consensus Definitions Task Force emphasizes its complexity as a “life-threatening organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated host response to infection”. Bacterial pathogens, historically [...] Read more.

Sepsis, a severe global healthcare challenge, is characterized by significant morbidity and mortality. The 2016 redefinition by the Third International Consensus Definitions Task Force emphasizes its complexity as a “life-threatening organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated host response to infection”. Bacterial pathogens, historically dominant, exhibit geographic variations, influencing healthcare strategies. The intricate dynamics of bacterial immunity involve recognizing pathogen-associated molecular patterns, triggering innate immune responses and inflammatory cascades. Dysregulation leads to immunothrombosis, disseminated intravascular coagulation, and mitochondrial dysfunction, contributing to the septic state. Viral sepsis, historically less prevalent, saw a paradigm shift during the COVID-19 pandemic, underscoring the need to understand the immunological response. Retinoic acid-inducible gene I-like receptors and Toll-like receptors play pivotal roles, and the cytokine storm in COVID-19 differs from bacterial sepsis. Latent viruses like human cytomegalovirus impact sepsis by reactivating during the immunosuppressive phases. Challenges in sepsis management include rapid pathogen identification, antibiotic resistance monitoring, and balancing therapy beyond antibiotics. This review highlights the evolving sepsis landscape, emphasizing the need for pathogen-specific therapeutic developments in a dynamic and heterogeneous clinical setting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Bacterial and Viral Pathogens on Sepsis Prevalence and Outcome)

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16 pages, 1241 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Roles and Interactions of Porphyromonas gingivalis and Fusobacterium nucleatum in Oral and Gastrointestinal Carcinogenesis: A Narrative Review

by Bing Wang, Juan Deng, Valentina Donati, Nabeel Merali, Adam E. Frampton, Elisa Giovannetti and Dongmei Deng

Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 93; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010093 - 20 Jan 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2764

Abstract

Epidemiological studies have spotlighted the intricate relationship between individual oral bacteria and tumor occurrence. Porphyromonas gingivalis and Fusobacteria nucleatum, which are known periodontal pathogens, have emerged as extensively studied participants with potential pathogenic abilities in carcinogenesis. However, the complex dynamics arising from [...] Read more.

Epidemiological studies have spotlighted the intricate relationship between individual oral bacteria and tumor occurrence. Porphyromonas gingivalis and Fusobacteria nucleatum, which are known periodontal pathogens, have emerged as extensively studied participants with potential pathogenic abilities in carcinogenesis. However, the complex dynamics arising from interactions between these two pathogens were less addressed. This narrative review aims to summarize the current knowledge on the prevalence and mechanism implications of P. gingivalis and F. nucleatum in the carcinogenesis of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), colorectal cancer (CRC), and pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). In particular, it explores the clinical and experimental evidence on the interplay between P. gingivalis and F. nucleatum in affecting oral and gastrointestinal carcinogenesis. P. gingivalis and F. nucleatum, which are recognized as keystone or bridging bacteria, were identified in multiple clinical studies simultaneously. The prevalence of both bacteria species correlated with cancer development progression, emphasizing the potential impact of the collaboration. Regrettably, there was insufficient experimental evidence to demonstrate the synergistic function. We further propose a hypothesis to elucidate the underlying mechanisms, offering a promising avenue for future research in this dynamic and evolving field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Opportunistic Oral Pathogens in Oral and Systemic Diseases)

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19 pages, 1836 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Markers of Inflammation, Tissue Damage, and Fibrosis in Individuals Diagnosed with Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Pneumonia: A Cohort Study

by Katherine Peña-Valencia, Will Riaño, Mariana Herrera-Diaz, Lucelly López, Diana Marín, Sandra Gonzalez, Olga Agudelo-García, Iván Arturo Rodríguez-Sabogal, Lázaro Vélez, Zulma Vanessa Rueda and Yoav Keynan

Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010084 - 18 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1548

Abstract

Previous studies have noted that persons living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) experience persistent lung dysfunction after an episode of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), although the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. We hypothesized that inflammation during pneumonia triggers increased tissue damage and accelerated pulmonary fibrosis, [...] Read more.

Previous studies have noted that persons living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) experience persistent lung dysfunction after an episode of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), although the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. We hypothesized that inflammation during pneumonia triggers increased tissue damage and accelerated pulmonary fibrosis, resulting in a gradual loss of lung function. We carried out a prospective cohort study of people diagnosed with CAP and/or HIV between 2016 and 2018 in three clinical institutions in Medellín, Colombia. Clinical data, blood samples, and pulmonary function tests (PFTs) were collected at baseline. Forty-one patients were included, divided into two groups: HIV and CAP (n = 17) and HIV alone (n = 24). We compared the concentrations of 17 molecules and PFT values between the groups. Patients with HIV and pneumonia presented elevated levels of cytokines and chemokines (IL-6, IL-8, IL-18, IL-1RA, IL-10, IP-10, MCP-1, and MIP-1β) compared to those with only HIV. A marked pulmonary dysfunction was evidenced by significant reductions in FEF25, FEF25-75, and FEV1. The correlation between these immune mediators and lung function parameters supports the connection between pneumonia-associated inflammation and end organ lung dysfunction. A low CD4 cell count (<200 cells/μL) predicted inflammation and lung dysfunction. These results underscore the need for targeted clinical approaches to mitigate the adverse impacts of CAP on lung function in this population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immunity to Respiratory Infections)

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16 pages, 1134 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Genetic Analysis of H5N1 High-Pathogenicity Avian Influenza Virus following a Mass Mortality Event in Wild Geese on the Solway Firth

by Craig S. Ross, Alexander M. P. Byrne, Sahar Mahmood, Saumya Thomas, Scott Reid, Lorna Freath, Larry R. Griffin, Marco Falchieri, Paul Holmes, Nick Goldsmith, Jessica M. Shaw, Alastair MacGugan, James Aegerter, Rowena Hansen, Ian H. Brown and Ashley C. Banyard

Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010083 - 17 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3124

Abstract

The United Kingdom (UK) and Europe have seen successive outbreaks of H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b high-pathogenicity avian influenza virus (HPAIV) since 2020 peaking in the autumn/winter periods. During the 2021/22 season, a mass die-off event of Svalbard Barnacle Geese (Branta leucopsis) was [...] Read more.

The United Kingdom (UK) and Europe have seen successive outbreaks of H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b high-pathogenicity avian influenza virus (HPAIV) since 2020 peaking in the autumn/winter periods. During the 2021/22 season, a mass die-off event of Svalbard Barnacle Geese (Branta leucopsis) was observed on the Solway Firth, a body of water on the west coast border between England and Scotland. This area is used annually by Barnacle Geese to over-winter, before returning to Svalbard to breed. Following initial identification of HPAIV in a Barnacle Goose on 8 November 2021, up to 32% of the total Barnacle Goose population may have succumbed to disease by the end of March 2022, along with other wild bird species in the area. Potential adaptation of the HPAIV to the Barnacle Goose population within this event was evaluated. Whole-genome sequencing of thirty-three HPAIV isolates from wild bird species demonstrated that there had been two distinct incursions of the virus, but the two viruses had remained genetically stable within the population, whilst viruses from infected wild birds were closely related to those from poultry cases occurring in the same region. Analysis of sera from the following year demonstrated that a high percentage (76%) of returning birds had developed antibodies to H5 AIV. This study demonstrates genetic stability of this strain of HPAIV in wild Anseriformes, and that, at the population scale, whilst there is a significant impact on survival, a high proportion of birds recover following infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Avian Virus Infection)

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10 pages, 1842 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Evaluation of Antibacterial and Antibiofilm Activity of Rice Husk Extract against Staphylococcus aureus

by Gloria Burlacchini, Angela Sandri, Adele Papetti, Ilaria Frosi, Federico Boschi, Maria M. Lleo and Caterina Signoretto

Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010080 - 16 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2190

Abstract

Infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus are particularly difficult to treat due to the high rate of antibiotic resistance. S. aureus also forms biofilms that reduce the effects of antibiotics and disinfectants. Therefore, new therapeutic approaches are increasingly required. In this scenario, plant waste [...] Read more.

Infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus are particularly difficult to treat due to the high rate of antibiotic resistance. S. aureus also forms biofilms that reduce the effects of antibiotics and disinfectants. Therefore, new therapeutic approaches are increasingly required. In this scenario, plant waste products represent a source of bioactive molecules. In this study, we evaluated the antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity of the rice husk extract (RHE) on S. aureus clinical isolates. In a biofilm inhibition assay, high concentrations of RHE counteracted the formation of biofilm by S. aureus isolates, both methicillin-resistant (MRSA) and -sensitive (MSSA). The observation of the MRSA biofilm by confocal laser scanning microscopy using live/dead cell viability staining confirmed that the bacterial viability in the RHE-treated biofilm was reduced. However, the extract showed no or little biofilm disaggregation ability. An additive effect was observed when treating S. aureus with a combination of RHE and oxacillin/cefoxitin. In Galleria mellonella larvae treated with RHE, the extract showed no toxicity even at high concentrations. Our results support that the rice husk has antimicrobial and antibiofilm properties and could potentially be used in the future in topical solutions or on medical devices to prevent biofilm formation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bacterial Biofilm Infections and Treatment)

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28 pages, 363 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Biofilm Producing Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Infections in Humans: Clinical Implications and Management

by Ashlesha Kaushik, Helen Kest, Mangla Sood, Bryan W. Steussy, Corey Thieman and Sandeep Gupta

Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010076 - 15 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4857

Abstract

Since its initial description in the 1960s, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has developed multiple mechanisms for antimicrobial resistance and evading the immune system, including biofilm production. MRSA is now a widespread pathogen, causing a spectrum of infections ranging from superficial skin issues to [...] Read more.

Since its initial description in the 1960s, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has developed multiple mechanisms for antimicrobial resistance and evading the immune system, including biofilm production. MRSA is now a widespread pathogen, causing a spectrum of infections ranging from superficial skin issues to severe conditions like osteoarticular infections and endocarditis, leading to high morbidity and mortality. Biofilm production is a key aspect of MRSA’s ability to invade, spread, and resist antimicrobial treatments. Environmental factors, such as suboptimal antibiotics, pH, temperature, and tissue oxygen levels, enhance biofilm formation. Biofilms are intricate bacterial structures with dense organisms embedded in polysaccharides, promoting their resilience. The process involves stages of attachment, expansion, maturation, and eventually disassembly or dispersion. MRSA’s biofilm formation has a complex molecular foundation, involving genes like icaADBC, fnbA, fnbB, clfA, clfB, atl, agr, sarA, sarZ, sigB, sarX, psm, icaR, and srtA. Recognizing pivotal genes for biofilm formation has led to potential therapeutic strategies targeting elemental and enzymatic properties to combat MRSA biofilms. This review provides a practical approach for healthcare practitioners, addressing biofilm pathogenesis, disease spectrum, and management guidelines, including advances in treatment. Effective management involves appropriate antimicrobial therapy, surgical interventions, foreign body removal, and robust infection control practices to curtail spread within healthcare environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Treatment of Biofilm Infections)

13 pages, 1704 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Complement Suppresses the Initial Type 1 Interferon Response to Ocular Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Infection in Mice

by Daniel J. J. Carr, Adrian Filiberti and Grzegorz B. Gmyrek

Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010074 - 13 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1849

Abstract

The complement system (CS) contributes to the initial containment of viral and bacterial pathogens and clearance of dying cells in circulation. We previously reported mice deficient in complement component 3 (C3KO mice) were more sensitive than wild-type (WT) mice to ocular HSV-1 infection, [...] Read more.

The complement system (CS) contributes to the initial containment of viral and bacterial pathogens and clearance of dying cells in circulation. We previously reported mice deficient in complement component 3 (C3KO mice) were more sensitive than wild-type (WT) mice to ocular HSV-1 infection, as measured by a reduction in cumulative survival and elevated viral titers in the nervous system but not the cornea between days three and seven post infection (pi). The present study was undertaken to determine if complement deficiency impacted virus replication and associated changes in inflammation at earlier time points in the cornea. C3KO mice were found to possess significantly (p < 0.05) less infectious virus in the cornea at 24 h pi that corresponded with a decrease in HSV-1 lytic gene expression at 12 and 24 h pi compared to WT animals. Flow cytometry acquisition found no differences in the myeloid cell populations residing in the cornea including total macrophage and neutrophil populations at 24 h pi with minimal infiltrating cell populations detected at the 12 h pi time point. Analysis of cytokine and chemokine content in the cornea measured at 12 and 24 h pi revealed that only CCL3 (MIP-1α) was found to be different between WT and C3KO mice with >2-fold increased levels (p < 0.05, ANOVA and Tukey’s post hoc t-test) in the cornea of WT mice at 12 h pi. C3KO mouse resistance to HSV-1 infection at the early time points correlated with a significant increase in type I interferon (IFN) gene expression including IFN-α1 and IFN-β and downstream effector genes including tetherin and RNase L (p < 0.05, Mann–Whitney rank order test). These results suggest early activation of the CS interferes with the induction of the type I IFN response and leads to a transient increase in virus replication following corneal HSV-1 infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members’ Collection Series: Molecular Epidemiology, Diagnostics and Management of Viral Pathogens)

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24 pages, 1724 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Herpesviruses and SARS-CoV-2: Viral Association with Oral Inflammatory Diseases

by Jonathan M. Banks, Kristelle J. Capistrano, Daniela A. Brandini, Filza Zaidi, Pari Thakkar, Rani Rahat, Joel Schwartz and Afsar R. Naqvi

Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010058 - 7 Jan 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4274

Abstract

The oral cavity is a niche for diverse microbes, including viruses. Members of the Herpesviridae family, comprised of dsDNA viruses, as well as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), an ssRNA virus, are among the most prevalent viruses infecting the oral cavity, [...] Read more.

The oral cavity is a niche for diverse microbes, including viruses. Members of the Herpesviridae family, comprised of dsDNA viruses, as well as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), an ssRNA virus, are among the most prevalent viruses infecting the oral cavity, and they exhibit clinical manifestations unique to oral tissues. Viral infection of oral mucosal epithelia triggers an immune response that results in prolonged inflammation. The clinical and systemic disease manifestations of HHV have been researched extensively, and several recent studies have illuminated the relationship between HHV and oral inflammatory diseases. Burgeoning evidence suggests the oral manifestation of SARS-CoV-2 infection includes xerostomia, dysgeusia, periodontal disease, mucositis, and opportunistic viral and bacterial infections, collectively described as oral post-acute sequelae of COVID-19 (PASC). These diverse sequelae could be a result of intensified immune responses initially due to the copious production of proinflammatory cytokines: the so-called “cytokine storm syndrome”, facilitating widespread oral and non-oral tissue damage. This review explores the interplay between HHV, SARS-CoV-2, and oral inflammatory diseases such as periodontitis, endodontic disease, and peri-implantitis. Additionally, the review discusses proper diagnostic techniques for identifying viral infection and how viral diagnostics can lead to improved overall patient health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Host-Virus Interactions in Viral Infectious Diseases)

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18 pages, 4287 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Therapeutic Effects of IL-1RA against Acute Bacterial Infections, including Antibiotic-Resistant Strains

by Ines Ambite, Thi Hien Tran, Daniel S. C. Butler, Michele Cavalera, Murphy Lam Yim Wan, Shahram Ahmadi and Catharina Svanborg

Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010042 - 31 Dec 2023

Viewed by 2412

Abstract

Innate immunity is essential for the anti-microbial defense, but excessive immune activation may cause severe disease. In this study, immunotherapy was shown to prevent excessive innate immune activation and restore the anti-bacterial defense. E. coli-infected Asc^−/− mice develop severe acute cystitis, [...] Read more.

Innate immunity is essential for the anti-microbial defense, but excessive immune activation may cause severe disease. In this study, immunotherapy was shown to prevent excessive innate immune activation and restore the anti-bacterial defense. E. coli-infected Asc^−/− mice develop severe acute cystitis, defined by IL-1 hyper-activation, high bacterial counts, and extensive tissue pathology. Here, the interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA), which inhibits IL-1 hyper-activation in acute cystitis, was identified as a more potent inhibitor of inflammation and NK1R- and substance P-dependent pain than cefotaxime. Furthermore, IL-1RA treatment inhibited the excessive innate immune activation in the kidneys of infected Irf3^−/− mice and restored tissue integrity. Unexpectedly, IL-1RA also accelerated bacterial clearance from infected bladders and kidneys, including antibiotic-resistant E. coli, where cefotaxime treatment was inefficient. The results suggest that by targeting the IL-1 response, control of the innate immune response to infection may be regained, with highly favorable treatment outcomes, including infections caused by antibiotic-resistant strains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insight in Pathogenic Escherichia coli: Infections, Pathogenesis and Therapies)

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20 pages, 11145 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Addressing Current Challenges in Poultry Meat Safety: Development of a Cultivation and Colony Hybridization Approach to Recover Enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens from Broiler Chicken Carcasses

by Rosette Kakese Mukosa, Alexandre Thibodeau, John Morris Fairbrother, William Thériault and Marie-Lou Gaucher

Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010030 - 28 Dec 2023

Viewed by 1433

Abstract

Enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens is one of the main causes of foodborne illness in Canada. The use of a conventional bacterial culture approach to isolate enterotoxigenic C. perfringens from poultry meat is common. This approach is based on the phenotype attributable to a double [...] Read more.

Enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens is one of the main causes of foodborne illness in Canada. The use of a conventional bacterial culture approach to isolate enterotoxigenic C. perfringens from poultry meat is common. This approach is based on the phenotype attributable to a double hemolysis phenomenon, whereas few enterotoxigenic strains of C. perfringens produce it, which further complicates the study of the reservoirs of this important pathogen. The objectives of the current study were to validate the ability of a digoxigenin-labeled probe to detect the C. perfringens cpe gene and to validate the use of either a filtration or a direct plating approach, combined with colony hybridization to detect enterotoxigenic C. perfringens. Pure DNA and pure colonies of enterotoxigenic C. perfringens and broiler chicken carcass rinsate samples were subjected to colony hybridization. The results showed that the synthesized DNA probe can detect the cpe gene from both DNA and pure colonies of enterotoxigenic C. perfringens, and from colonies grown from carcass rinsates artificially contaminated with enterotoxigenic C. perfringens. Our study suggests that this isolation method is a promising tool for a better understanding of the epidemiology of this zoonotic pathogen. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Evaluation of Detection Method for Pathogenic Bacteria from Food)

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17 pages, 4431 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Clonal Diversity, Antibiotic Resistance, and Virulence Factor Prevalence of Community Associated Staphylococcus aureus in Southeastern Virginia

by Katelyn D. Cranmer, Mohan D. Pant, Suzanne Quesnel and Julia A. Sharp

Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010025 - 27 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1486

Abstract

Staphylococcus aureus is a significant human pathogen with a formidable propensity for antibiotic resistance. Worldwide, it is the leading cause of skin and soft tissue infections (SSTI), septic arthritis, osteomyelitis, and infective endocarditis originating from both community- and healthcare-associated settings. Although often grouped [...] Read more.

Staphylococcus aureus is a significant human pathogen with a formidable propensity for antibiotic resistance. Worldwide, it is the leading cause of skin and soft tissue infections (SSTI), septic arthritis, osteomyelitis, and infective endocarditis originating from both community- and healthcare-associated settings. Although often grouped by methicillin resistance, both methicillin-resistant (MRSA) and methicillin-sensitive (MSSA) strains are known to cause significant pathologies and injuries. Virulence factors and growing resistance to antibiotics play major roles in the pathogenicity of community-associated strains. In our study, we examined the genetic variability and acquired antibiograms of 122 S. aureus clinical isolates from SSTI, blood, and urinary tract infections originating from pediatric patients within the southeast region of Virginia, USA. We identified a suite of clinically relevant virulence factors and evaluated their prevalence within these isolates. Five genes (clfA, spA, sbi, scpA, and vwb) with immune-evasive functions were identified in all isolates. MRSA isolates had a greater propensity to be resistant to more antibiotics as well as significantly more likely to carry several virulence factors compared to MSSA strains. Further, the carriage of various genes was found to vary significantly based on the infection type (SSTI, blood, urine). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection and Epidemiology of Drug-Resistant Bacteria)

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12 pages, 2324 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Utility of an In-Vitro Micro-Neutralizing Test in Comparison to a Plaque Reduction Neutralization Test for Dengue Virus, Japanese Encephalitis Virus, and Zika Virus Serology and Drug Screening

by Kazumi Haga, Zhenying (Nancy) Chen, Misao Himeno, Ryuichi Majima and Meng Ling Moi

Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010008 - 20 Dec 2023

Viewed by 1774

Abstract

Flavivirus infections, including dengue virus (DENV), Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), and Zika virus (ZIKV), present significant global public health challenges. For successful vaccine design, the assessment of neutralizing antibody activity requires reliable and robust methodologies for determining antibody titers. Although the plaque reduction [...] Read more.

Flavivirus infections, including dengue virus (DENV), Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), and Zika virus (ZIKV), present significant global public health challenges. For successful vaccine design, the assessment of neutralizing antibody activity requires reliable and robust methodologies for determining antibody titers. Although the plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) is commonly acknowledged as the gold standard, it has limitations in terms of time and cost, and its usage may be limited in resource-limited settings. To address these challenges, we introduced the micro-neutralization test (MNT) as a simplified alternative to the PRNT. The MNT employs a 96-well plate format, conducts microscale neutralization assays, and assesses cell viability by dissolving cells to create a uniform color solution, which is measured with a spectrometer. In this study, we evaluated the utility of the MNT by contrasting the end-point titers of the MNT and PRNT using 4 monoclonal antibodies, 15 non-human primate serum samples, and 2 therapeutic drug candidates across flaviviruses. The results demonstrated a strong correlation between the MNT and PRNT titers, affirming the robustness and reproducibility of the MNT for evaluating control measures against flaviviruses. This research contributes valuable insights toward the development of a cost-effective antibody titer testing approach that is particularly suitable for resource-limited settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Arthropod-Borne Flavivirus Infections: One-Health Approaches in Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, Prevention, and Treatment)

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38 pages, 2433 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

RNA-Seq of Phenotypically Distinct Eimeria maxima Strains Reveals Coordinated and Contrasting Maturation and Shared Sporogonic Biomarkers with Eimeria acervulina

by Matthew S. Tucker, Celia N. O’Brien, Alexis N. Johnson, Jitender P. Dubey, Benjamin M. Rosenthal and Mark C. Jenkins

Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010002 - 19 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2030

Abstract

Strains of Eimeria maxima, an enteric parasite of poultry, vary in virulence. Here, we performed microscopy and RNA sequencing on oocysts of strains APU-1 (which exhibits more virulence) and APU-2. Although each underwent parallel development, APU-1 initially approached maturation more slowly. Each [...] Read more.

Strains of Eimeria maxima, an enteric parasite of poultry, vary in virulence. Here, we performed microscopy and RNA sequencing on oocysts of strains APU-1 (which exhibits more virulence) and APU-2. Although each underwent parallel development, APU-1 initially approached maturation more slowly. Each strain sporulated by hour 36; their gene expression diverged somewhat thereafter. Candidate biomarkers of viability included 58 genes contributing at least 1000 Transcripts Per Million throughout sporulation, such as cation-transporting ATPases and zinc finger domain-containing proteins. Many genes resemble constitutively expressed genes also important to Eimeria acervulina. Throughout sporulation, the expression of only a few genes differed between strains; these included cyclophilin A, EF-1α, and surface antigens (SAGs). Mature and immature oocysts uniquely differentially express certain genes, such as an X-Pro dipeptidyl-peptidase domain-containing protein in immature oocysts and a profilin in mature oocysts. The immature oocysts of each strain expressed more phosphoserine aminotransferase and the mature oocysts expressed more SAGs and microneme proteins. These data illuminate processes influencing sporulation in Eimeria and related genera, such as Cyclospora, and identify biological processes which may differentiate them. Drivers of development and senescence may provide tools to assess the viability of oocysts, which would greatly benefit the poultry industry and food safety applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Coccidian Parasites in Livestock)

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11 pages, 567 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Gastrointestinal Parasite Infections and Environmental Sustainability of the Ovine Sector: Eimeria spp. Infections and Nitrogen and Phosphorus Excretions in Dairy Sheep in Italy

by Irene Sodi, Mina Martini, Federica Salari and Stefania Perrucci

Pathogens 2023, 12(12), 1459; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12121459 - 16 Dec 2023

Viewed by 1490

Abstract

In sheep farming, gastrointestinal parasites can be responsible for significant reductions in animal health and production. Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) fecal excretions are the main determining factors for N₂O emissions from manure management and may pose other environmental problems, such [...] Read more.

In sheep farming, gastrointestinal parasites can be responsible for significant reductions in animal health and production. Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) fecal excretions are the main determining factors for N₂O emissions from manure management and may pose other environmental problems, such as the acidification and eutrophication of natural habitats. By using the Mini-FLOTAC technique on fecal samples from sheep of different ages and physiological status from 19 dairy sheep farms in Tuscany (central Italy), gastrointestinal parasite infections were evaluated. The animal N and P fecal contents were also assessed, with the aim of evaluating possible relationships between the identified parasites and the environmental sustainability of the examined farms. The obtained results showed that Eimeria spp. (86.36%) and gastrointestinal strongyle (54.55%) infections are prevalent in the examined farms. Moreover, significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) P and Eimeria oocyst/gram-of-feces (OPG) values were found in fecal samples from animals < 1 year of age, and a significant (p ≤ 0.05) positive correlation resulted between N content and Eimeria OPG in fecal samples from animals in the first month of lactation. The findings from this study suggest for the first time that Eimeria spp. infections may have an impact on the environmental sustainability of sheep farming. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parasitic Diseases of Domestic, Wild, and Exotic Animals (Volume II))

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21 pages, 2046 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Ocular Manifestations of Flavivirus Infections

by Sourour Meziou Zina, Gautier Hoarau, Marc Labetoulle, Moncef Khairallah and Antoine Rousseau

Pathogens 2023, 12(12), 1457; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12121457 - 15 Dec 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2857

Abstract

Flaviviruses are a group of positive-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses predominantly transmitted by arthropods (mainly mosquitoes) that cause severe endemic infections and epidemics on a global scale. They represent a major cause of systemic morbidity and death and are expanding worldwide. Among this group, [...] Read more.

Flaviviruses are a group of positive-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses predominantly transmitted by arthropods (mainly mosquitoes) that cause severe endemic infections and epidemics on a global scale. They represent a major cause of systemic morbidity and death and are expanding worldwide. Among this group, dengue fever, the West Nile virus, yellow fever, Japanese Encephalitis, and, recently, the Zika virus have been linked to a spectrum of ocular manifestations. These manifestations encompass subconjunctival hemorrhages and conjunctivitis, anterior and posterior uveitis (inclusive of vitritis, chorioretinitis, and retinal vasculitis), maculopathy, retinal hemorrhages, and optic neuritis. Clinical diagnosis of these infectious diseases is primarily based on epidemiological data, history, systemic symptoms and signs, and the pattern of ocular involvement. Diagnosis confirmation relies on laboratory testing, including RT-PCR and serological testing. Ocular involvement typically follows a self-limited course but can result in irreversible visual impairment. Effective treatments of flavivirus infections are currently unavailable. Prevention remains the mainstay for arthropod vector and zoonotic disease control. Effective vaccines are available only for the yellow fever virus, dengue virus, and Japanese Encephalitis virus. This review comprehensively summarizes the current knowledge regarding the ophthalmic manifestations of the foremost flavivirus-associated human diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Advances in Flavivirus and Other Arboviruses)

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14 pages, 702 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

BoLA-DRB3 Polymorphism Associated with Bovine Leukemia Virus Infection and Proviral Load in Holstein Cattle in Egypt

by Rania Hamada, Samy Metwally, Ryosuke Matsuura, Liushiqi Borjigin, Chieh-Wen Lo, Alsagher O. Ali, Adel E. A. Mohamed, Satoshi Wada and Yoko Aida

Pathogens 2023, 12(12), 1451; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12121451 - 14 Dec 2023

Viewed by 1964

Abstract

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) is the etiological agent of enzootic bovine leukosis, the most prevalent neoplastic disease of cattle worldwide. The immune response to BLV and disease susceptibility and resistance in cattle are strongly correlated with the bovine leukocyte antigen (BoLA)- [...] Read more.

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) is the etiological agent of enzootic bovine leukosis, the most prevalent neoplastic disease of cattle worldwide. The immune response to BLV and disease susceptibility and resistance in cattle are strongly correlated with the bovine leukocyte antigen (BoLA)-DRB3 allelic polymorphism. BLV infection continues to spread in Egypt, in part because the relationships between BLV infection, proviral load in Egypt, and BoLA-DRB3 polymorphism are unknown. Here, we identified 18 previously reported alleles in 121 Holstein cows using a polymerase chain reaction sequence-based typing method. Furthermore, BoLA-DRB3 gene polymorphisms in these animals were investigated for their influence on viral infection. BoLA-DRB3*015:01 and BoLA-DRB3*010:01 were identified as susceptible and resistant alleles, respectively, for BLV infection in the tested Holsteins. In addition, BoLA-DRB3*012:01 was associated with low PVL in previous reports but high PVL in Holstein cattle in Egypt. This study is the first to demonstrate that the BoLA-DRB3 polymorphism confers resistance and susceptibility to PVL and infections of BLV in Holstein cattle in Egypt. Our results can be useful for the disease control and eradication of BLV through genetic selection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diagnostics of Animal Viral Infectious Diseases)

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22 pages, 3751 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Immune Responses in Oral Papillomavirus Clearance in the MmuPV1 Mouse Model

by Sarah A. Brendle, Jingwei J. Li, Vonn Walter, Todd D. Schell, Michael Kozak, Karla K. Balogh, Song Lu, Neil D. Christensen, Yusheng Zhu, Karam El-Bayoumy and Jiafen Hu

Pathogens 2023, 12(12), 1452; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12121452 - 14 Dec 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2234

Abstract

Human papillomavirus (HPV)-induced oropharyngeal cancer now exceeds HPV-induced cervical cancer, with a noticeable sex bias. Although it is well established that women have a more proficient immune system, it remains unclear whether immune control of oral papillomavirus infections differs between sexes. In the [...] Read more.

Human papillomavirus (HPV)-induced oropharyngeal cancer now exceeds HPV-induced cervical cancer, with a noticeable sex bias. Although it is well established that women have a more proficient immune system, it remains unclear whether immune control of oral papillomavirus infections differs between sexes. In the current study, we use genetically modified mice to target CCR2 and Stat1 pathways, with the aim of investigating the role of both innate and adaptive immune responses in clearing oral papillomavirus, using our established papillomavirus (MmuPV1) infection model. Persistent oral MmuPV1 infection was detected in Rag1ko mice with T and B cell deficiencies. Meanwhile, other tested mice were susceptible to MmuPV1 infections but were able to clear the virus. We found sex differences in key myeloid cells, including macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells in the infected tongues of wild type and Stat1ko mice but these differences were not observed in CCR2ko mice. Intriguingly, we also observed a sex difference in anti-MmuPV1 E4 antibody levels, especially for two IgG isotypes: IgG2b and IgG3. However, we found comparable numbers of interferon-gamma-producing CD8 T cells stimulated by E6 and E7 in both sexes. These findings suggest that males and females may use different components of innate and adaptive immune responses to control papillomavirus infections in the MmuPV1 mouse model. The observed sex difference in immune responses, especially in myeloid cells including dendritic cell (DC) subsets, may have potential diagnostic and prognostic values for HPV-associated oropharyngeal cancer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Viral Pathogenesis, Host Immune Responses and Immunotherapies)

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18 pages, 2859 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Differential Immune Responses and Underlying Mechanisms of Metabolic Reprogramming in Smooth and Rough Variants of Mycobacterium peregrinum Infections

by Ji Won Lee, Ho Won Kim, A-Reum Yu, Hoe Sun Yoon, Minji Kang, Hwan-Woo Park, Sung Ki Lee, Jake Whang and Jong-Seok Kim

Pathogens 2023, 12(12), 1446; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12121446 - 13 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1561

Abstract

Mycobacterium peregrinum (Mpgm) is a rapidly growing mycobacteria that is classified as a nontuberculous mycobacterium (NTM) and is commonly found in environmental sources such as soil, water, and animals. Mpgm is considered an opportunistic pathogen that causes infection in immunocompromised individuals [...] Read more.

Mycobacterium peregrinum (Mpgm) is a rapidly growing mycobacteria that is classified as a nontuberculous mycobacterium (NTM) and is commonly found in environmental sources such as soil, water, and animals. Mpgm is considered an opportunistic pathogen that causes infection in immunocompromised individuals or those with underlying medical conditions. Although there have been clinical reports on Mpgm, reports of the immune response and metabolic reprogramming have not been published. Thus, we studied standard Mpgm-ATCC and two clinical strains (Mpgm-S and Mpgm-R) using macrophages and mouse bone marrow-derived cells. Mpgm has two types of colony morphologies: smooth and rough. We grew all strains on the 7H10 agar medium to visually validate the morphology. Cytokine levels were measured via ELISA and real-time PCR. The changes in mitochondrial function and glycolysis in Mpgm-infected macrophages were measured using an extracellular flux analyzer. Mpgm-S-infected macrophages showed elevated levels of inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-6, IL-12p40, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, compared to Mpgm-ATCC- and Mpgm-R-infected macrophages. Additionally, our findings revealed metabolic changes in Mpgm-ATCC and two clinical strains (Mpgm-S and Mpgm-R) during infection; significant changes were observed in the mitochondrial respiration, extracellular acidification, and the oxygen consumption of BMDMs upon Mpgm-S infection. In summary, within the strains examined, Mpgm-S displayed greater virulence, triggered a heightened immune response, and induced more profound shifts in bioenergetic metabolism than Mpgm-ATCC and Mpgm-R. This study is the first to document distinct immune responses and metabolic reorganization following Mpgm infection. These findings lay a crucial foundation for further investigations into the pathogenesis of Mpgm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Nontuberculous Mycobacteria (NTM))

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17 pages, 3404 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Analysis of Sporulation in Bacillus cereus Biovar anthracis Which Contains an Insertion in the Gene for the Sporulation Factor σ^K

by Constanze Gummelt, Susann Dupke, Sabine Howaldt, Fee Zimmermann, Holger C. Scholz, Michael Laue and Silke R. Klee

Pathogens 2023, 12(12), 1442; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12121442 - 13 Dec 2023

Viewed by 1622

Abstract

Bacillus cereus biovar anthracis (Bcbva) is an untypical pathogen causing a fatal anthrax-like disease in a variety of wildlife species in African rainforest areas. In contrast to Bacillus anthracis and most species of the B. cereus group, all strains of the [...] Read more.

Bacillus cereus biovar anthracis (Bcbva) is an untypical pathogen causing a fatal anthrax-like disease in a variety of wildlife species in African rainforest areas. In contrast to Bacillus anthracis and most species of the B. cereus group, all strains of the Bcbva cluster contain a 22 kb insertion in the sigK gene which encodes the essential late sporulation sigma factor σ^K. This insertion is excised during sporulation in a site-specific recombination process resulting in an intact sigK gene and a circular molecule. The sporulation kinetics of two strains each of Bcbva and B. anthracis were compared by the expression analysis of eight sporulation-associated genes, including sigK, using reverse transcriptase quantitative real-time PCR. In addition, morphological sporulation stages were analyzed and quantified by electron microscopy. Our results indicated that the necessary excision of the insertion in Bcbva neither delayed nor inhibited its sporulation. In two spontaneous mutants of Bcbva, the excision of the sigK insertion and sporulation were impeded due to mutations in the spo0A and spoVG regulator genes, respectively. The spo0A frameshift mutation was overcome by intragenic suppression in a revertant which was able to sporulate normally, despite an M171S amino acid exchange in the global regulator Spo0A. A screening of the NCBI database identified further strains of the B. cereus group which possess unrelated insertions in the sigK gene, and two strains containing almost identical insertions at the same gene position. Some of the sigK insertions encode putative prophages, whereas the Bcbva insertion encoded a type I restriction–modification system. The function of these insertions and if they are possibly essential for sporulation remains to be assessed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anthrax—a Threat beyond Bacillus anthracis)

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19 pages, 1503 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Extrapulmonary and Drug-Resistant Childhood Tuberculosis: Unveiling the Disease to Adopt the Optimal Treatment Strategy

by Domenico Pace, Francesca Corvaglia, Catiuscia Lisi, Luisa Galli and Elena Chiappini

Pathogens 2023, 12(12), 1439; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12121439 - 12 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1514

Abstract

Paediatric tuberculosis (TB) is a substantial threat among infectious diseases, particularly considering the high risk of extrapulmonary tuberculosis (EPTB), severe forms of the disease, and the spreading of drug-resistant strains. Describing the characteristics of children with EPTB and those with drug-resistant tuberculosis (DR-TB) [...] Read more.

Paediatric tuberculosis (TB) is a substantial threat among infectious diseases, particularly considering the high risk of extrapulmonary tuberculosis (EPTB), severe forms of the disease, and the spreading of drug-resistant strains. Describing the characteristics of children with EPTB and those with drug-resistant tuberculosis (DR-TB) and analysing the role of second-line drugs could facilitate the management of these cases. This retrospective study was conducted on 271 children diagnosed with active TB disease (44 EPTB cases, 9 DR-TB cases), originating from diverse geographic areas, who were referred to the infectious disease unit at Meyer Children’s Hospital, Florence, Italy, from 2006 to 2022. In most patients, the management of therapies was complicated by the impossibility to obtain drug susceptibility testing (DST) results, which improved over the years: 17/154 (11.04%) children had DST results between 2006 and 2013, and 50/117 (42.73%, p < 0.001) between 2014 and 2022. Second-line drugs were not exclusively administered to DR-TB cases, but also to EPTB cases (20/44, 45.45%). Drugs were generally well tolerated; adverse events occurred in 13 children (13/271, 4.80%) and were generally mild and reversable. Therapies were successful in 267 children (98.52%) considered cured, while 4 (1.48%) presented sequelae. Both univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were conducted to investigate factors associated with EPTB, DR-TB, and second-line drugs administration. Originating from Asia emerged as a risk factor associated with both EPTB and DR-TB (p = 0.013 and p = 0.045, respectively). The introduction of GeneXpert tests has significantly improved TB diagnosis and the obtaining of DST results. The administration of second-line therapies should be limited primarily to DR-TB cases, but it is possible that these drugs may also be beneficial in selected EPTB cases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neglected Mycobacterial Diseases)

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17 pages, 1439 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Impact of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infection in Adult Cystic Fibrosis Patients—A Single Polish Centre Study

by Sylwia Jarzynka, Oliwia Makarewicz, Daniel Weiss, Anna Minkiewicz-Zochniak, Agnieszka Iwańska, Wojciech Skorupa, Marcin Padzik, Ewa Augustynowicz-Kopeć and Gabriela Olędzka

Pathogens 2023, 12(12), 1440; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12121440 - 12 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1532

Abstract

Background: Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) is one of the most predominant pathogens of lung infections, often causing exacerbations in adult patients with cystic fibrosis (CF). Materials and Methods: Microbiological characterization of 74 PA isolates and to evaluate the correlations between the bacterial features and [...] Read more.

Background: Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) is one of the most predominant pathogens of lung infections, often causing exacerbations in adult patients with cystic fibrosis (CF). Materials and Methods: Microbiological characterization of 74 PA isolates and to evaluate the correlations between the bacterial features and 44 adult Polish CF cohort clinical parameters. Results: The most common variant in the CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene was F508del (76.3%), followed by 3849+10kbC>T (26.3%). A total of 39.4% of the PA isolates showed multiple resistances. In patients with parameters pointing to a decline in lung function, there was a statistically significant moderate correlation with β-lactam resistance and a weak correlation between hospital frequency and colistin resistance. The mucoidity did not correlate with the biofilm formation ability, which showed 41.9% of the isolates. Proteolytic activity, observed in 60.8% of the clinical isolates, was weakly associated with motility detected in 78.4% of the strains. The genetic profiles of the PA were highly heterogeneous, and a weak positive correlation was established between cluster group and biofilm formation. Conclusion: The findings suggest that there is a high variety in P. aeruginosa populations in adult CF patients. There is a need to monitor PA strains in groups of patients with cystic fibrosis, in particular, in terms of the occurrence of antibiotic resistance related to a decline in lung function. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Human Pathogen Control—a 21st Century Challenge 2.0)

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27 pages, 1773 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceSystematic Review

Anti-Toxoplasma gondii Antibodies in European Residents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Studies Published between 2000 and 2020

by Rafael Calero-Bernal, Solange María Gennari, Santiago Cano, Martha Ynés Salas-Fajardo, Arantxa Ríos, Gema Álvarez-García and Luis Miguel Ortega-Mora

Pathogens 2023, 12(12), 1430; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12121430 - 8 Dec 2023

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 1886

Abstract

Toxoplasmosis has a major impact on animal and public health. Information regarding the seroprevalence of human Toxoplasma gondii infections from a European perspective has not yet been compiled to date. Thus, the present review summarized available resident data from the period 2000–2020. The [...] Read more.

Toxoplasmosis has a major impact on animal and public health. Information regarding the seroprevalence of human Toxoplasma gondii infections from a European perspective has not yet been compiled to date. Thus, the present review summarized available resident data from the period 2000–2020. The overall seroprevalence of anti-T. gondii IgG was 32.1%, with great variability between countries (n = 30). The subgroup analysis identified different pooled prevalence data depending on the geographic area (p < 0.0001), target population (p = 0.0147), and serological diagnosis assays used (p = 0.0059). A high heterogeneity (I² = 100%, p < 0.001; Q = 3.5e+05, d.f. = 135, p < 0.001) and degree of publication bias (Egger’s test = 6.14, p < 0.001) were observed among the 134 studies considered. The occurrence of anti-T. gondii IgM, which was reported in 64.7% of studies, reached a pooled seroprevalence of 0.6%. In addition, among the eight main risk factors identified, “contact with soil”, “consumption of undercooked beef”, and “intake of unwashed vegetables” were the most significantly associated with infections. The fact that one-third of the European population has been exposed to T. gondii justifies extra efforts to harmonize surveillance systems and develop additional risk-factor analyses based on detailed source attribution assessment. Full article

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8 pages, 444 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Ocular Manifestations of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in the Combination Antiretroviral Therapy Era

by Mingming Yang, Koju Kamoi, Yuan Zong, Jing Zhang, Yaru Zou and Kyoko Ohno-Matsui

Pathogens 2023, 12(12), 1417; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12121417 - 4 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1576

Abstract

Since the introduction of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) in Japan in 2008, the spectrum of ocular manifestations in patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has changed. This study, conducted at Tokyo Medical and Dental University Hospital between January 2012 and August 2023, aimed [...] Read more.

Since the introduction of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) in Japan in 2008, the spectrum of ocular manifestations in patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has changed. This study, conducted at Tokyo Medical and Dental University Hospital between January 2012 and August 2023, aimed to understand the epidemiology and clinical features of ocular manifestations in patients with HIV during the cART era. Of the 218 patients diagnosed with HIV, 23 (10.55%) exhibited ocular manifestations; all were male, aged 32–73. The most prevalent ocular complication was uveitis (60.67%). Notably, the prevalence of uveitis in this cART era has surged compared to earlier Japanese studies. Our data also suggest a potential direct link between uveitis and HIV, particularly in patients who have not yet undergone cART. However, cytomegalovirus retinitis, another prevalent ocular disease in our study, appeared more strongly associated with patients who commenced cART. Neither ocular condition was significantly correlated with CD4+ T-cell count. Importantly, our observed ocular manifestation prevalence (10.55%) was lower than that in previous studies, emphasizing the potential influence of cART and national healthcare support. These findings provide unique insights into the evolution of ocular manifestations in patients with HIV in Japan amidst cART availability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members’ Collection Series: HIV and Viral Co-infections)

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17 pages, 2622 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Epidemiological Assessment of African Swine Fever Spread in the Dominican Republic

by Rachel A. Schambow, Syed Hussain, Maria C. Antognoli, Silvia Kreindel, Raysa Reyes and Andres M. Perez

Pathogens 2023, 12(12), 1414; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12121414 - 1 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1715

Abstract

Since African Swine Fever (ASF) was detected in the Dominican Republic in July 2021, it has negatively impacted the country’s swine industry. Assessing the epidemiological situation is crucial to helping local authorities and industry stakeholders control the disease. Here, data on 155 reported [...] Read more.

Since African Swine Fever (ASF) was detected in the Dominican Republic in July 2021, it has negatively impacted the country’s swine industry. Assessing the epidemiological situation is crucial to helping local authorities and industry stakeholders control the disease. Here, data on 155 reported outbreaks in the Dominican Republic from November 2022 to June 2023 were evaluated. Descriptive spatiotemporal analysis was performed to characterize disease distribution and spread, and between-herd R₀ was calculated for the study period. The Knox test and a space–time permutation model were used to evaluate clustering. Data on clinical presentation, biosecurity measures, and suspected reasons for introduction were categorized and summarized. The majority (78%) of outbreaks occurred on backyard farms which generally had low biosecurity. Across farm types, the majority of pigs were still alive at the time of depopulation. Spatiotemporal findings and R₀ estimates suggest an endemic pattern of disease geographically located centrally within the country. Clustering was detected even at small temporal and spatial distances due to outbreaks amongst neighboring backyard farms. These results provide critical information on the current state of the ASF epidemic in the Dominican Republic and will aid government officials and swine industry leaders in developing effective ASF control strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emergence and Control of African Swine Fever)

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13 pages, 611 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Exogenous Klotho Extends Survival in COVID-19 Model Mice

by Farhang Alem, Natalia Campos-Obando, Aarthi Narayanan, Charles L. Bailey and Roman F. Macaya

Pathogens 2023, 12(12), 1404; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12121404 - 29 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2895

Abstract

A striking feature of COVID-19 disease is the broad spectrum of risk factors associated with case severity, as well as the diversity of clinical manifestations. While no central agent has been able to explain the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection, the factors that most [...] Read more.

A striking feature of COVID-19 disease is the broad spectrum of risk factors associated with case severity, as well as the diversity of clinical manifestations. While no central agent has been able to explain the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection, the factors that most robustly correlate with severity are risk factors linked to aging. Low serum levels of Klotho, an anti-aging protein, strongly correlate with the pathogenesis of the same risk factors and manifestations of conditions similar to those expressed in severe COVID-19 cases. The current manuscript presents original research on the effects of the exogenous application of Klotho, an anti-aging protein, in COVID-19 model mice. Klotho supplementation resulted in a statistically significant survival benefit in parametric and non-parametric models. Further research is required to elucidate the mechanistic role Klotho plays in COVID-19 pathogenesis as well as the possible modulation SARS-CoV-2 may have on the biological aging process. Full article

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16 pages, 2598 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Identifying Knowledge Gaps through the Systematic Review of Temperature-Driven Variability in the Competence of Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus for Chikungunya Virus

by Rebecca C. Christofferson, Erik A. Turner and Víctor Hugo Peña-García

Pathogens 2023, 12(11), 1368; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12111368 - 18 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1929

Abstract

Temperature is a well-known effector of several transmission factors of mosquito-borne viruses, including within mosquito dynamics. These dynamics are often characterized by vector competence and the extrinsic incubation period (EIP). Vector competence is the intrinsic ability of a mosquito population to become infected [...] Read more.

Temperature is a well-known effector of several transmission factors of mosquito-borne viruses, including within mosquito dynamics. These dynamics are often characterized by vector competence and the extrinsic incubation period (EIP). Vector competence is the intrinsic ability of a mosquito population to become infected with and transmit a virus, while EIP is the time it takes for the virus to reach the salivary glands and be expectorated following an infectious bloodmeal. Temperatures outside the optimal range act on life traits, decreasing transmission potential, while increasing temperature within the optimal range correlates to increasing vector competence and a decreased EIP. These relatively well-studied effects of other Aedes borne viruses (dengue and Zika) are used to make predictions about transmission efficiency, including the challenges presented by urban heat islands and climate change. However, the knowledge of temperature and chikungunya (CHIKV) dynamics within its two primary vectors—Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus—remains less characterized, even though CHIKV remains a virus of public-health importance. Here, we review the literature and summarize the state of the literature on CHIKV and temperature dependence of vector competence and EIP and use these data to demonstrate how the remaining knowledge gap might confound the ability to adequately predict and, thus, prepare for future outbreaks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogens in 2023)

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11 pages, 1576 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Predominance of Canine Parainfluenza Virus and Mycoplasma in Canine Infectious Respiratory Disease Complex in Dogs

by Aurelle Yondo, Allen A. Kalantari, Ingrid Fernandez-Marrero, Amy McKinney, Hemant K. Naikare and Binu T. Velayudhan

Pathogens 2023, 12(11), 1356; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12111356 - 15 Nov 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2321

Abstract

Canine infectious respiratory disease complex (CIRDC) is caused by different viruses and bacteria. Viruses associated with CIRDC include canine adenovirus type 2 (CAV-2), canine distemper virus (CDV), canine influenza virus (CIV), canine herpesvirus type 1 (CHV-1), canine respiratory coronavirus (CRCoV), and canine parainfluenza [...] Read more.

Canine infectious respiratory disease complex (CIRDC) is caused by different viruses and bacteria. Viruses associated with CIRDC include canine adenovirus type 2 (CAV-2), canine distemper virus (CDV), canine influenza virus (CIV), canine herpesvirus type 1 (CHV-1), canine respiratory coronavirus (CRCoV), and canine parainfluenza virus (CPIV). Bacteria associated with CIRDC include Bordetella bronchiseptica, Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus (S. zooepidemicus), and Mycoplasma spp. The present study examined the prevalence of CIRDC pathogens in specimens received by a Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory in Georgia, USA., from 2018 to 2022. Out of 459 cases, viral agents were detected in 34% of cases and bacterial agents were detected in 58% of cases. A single pathogen was detected in 31% of cases, while two or more pathogens were identified in 24% of cases. The percentages of viral agents identified were CAV-2 (4%), CDV (3%), CPIV (16%), CRCoV (7%), and CIV (2%). The percentages of bacterial agents were B. bronchiseptica (10%), Mycoplasma canis (24%), Mycoplasma cynos (21%), and S. zooepidemicus (2%). Over the five-year period, the positive cases ranged from 2–4% for CAV-2, 1–7% for CDV, 1–4% for CHV-1, 9–22% for CPIV, 4–13% for CRCoV, and 1–4% for CIV. Overall, the most prevalent pathogens associated with CIRDC were CPIV, M. canis, and M. cynos. Full article

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16 pages, 717 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Cervical HPV Infections, Sexually Transmitted Bacterial Pathogens and Cytology Findings—A Molecular Epidemiology Study

by George Valasoulis, Abraham Pouliakis, Georgios Michail, Ioulia Magaliou, Christos Parthenis, Niki Margari, Christine Kottaridi, Aris Spathis, Danai Leventakou, Argyro-Ioanna Ieronimaki, Georgios Androutsopoulos, Periklis Panagopoulos, Alexandros Daponte, Sotirios Tsiodras and Ioannis G. Panayiotides

Pathogens 2023, 12(11), 1347; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12111347 - 14 Nov 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1474

Abstract

Prevalent cervical HPV infection and high-risk HPV persistence consequences have been extensively investigated in the literature; nevertheless, any causative interrelations of other sexually transmitted bacterial infections (STIs) with cervical HPV infection have not yet been fully elucidated. This study aimed to investigate the [...] Read more.

Prevalent cervical HPV infection and high-risk HPV persistence consequences have been extensively investigated in the literature; nevertheless, any causative interrelations of other sexually transmitted bacterial infections (STIs) with cervical HPV infection have not yet been fully elucidated. This study aimed to investigate the possible association of STIs with cervical cytology aberrations and HPV genotyping results in a representative sample of predominantly young Greek women. Liquid-based cytology and molecular detection for bacterial STIs and HPV as well as extended HPV genotyping were simultaneously assessed in cervical samples from 2256 individuals visiting several urban outpatient Gynecology Departments for well-woman visits or cervical screening throughout a 20-month period. All specimens were centrally processed with validated molecular assays. The mean age of the studied women was 37.0 ± 11.7 years; 722 women (33.30%) tested positive for STI (mean age 34.23 ± 10.87 years). A higher mean age (38.34 ± 11.83 years (p < 0.05)) was associated with negative STI testing. Chlamydia trachomatis was detected in 59 individuals (8.2%), Mycoplasma hominis in 156 (21.6%), Mycoplasma genitalium in 14 (1.9%), and Ureaplasma spp. in 555 (76.9%); infections with two bacterial pathogens were identified in 73 samples (10.1%). Cervical HPV was detected in 357 out of 1385 samples with a valid HPV typing result (25.8%). The mean age of HPV-positive women was 32.0 ± 8.4 years; individuals testing HPV-negative were slightly older (N = 1028): 34.4 ± 9.2 (p < 0.05). Among the 1371 individuals with valid results both for bacterial STIs and cervical HPV detection, women with an HPV-positive sample were more likely to harbor an STI (OR: 2.69, 95% CI 2.10–3.46, p < 0.05). Interestingly, bacterial STI positivity illustrated significant heterogeneity between NILM and LSIL cases, with 28.88% of NILM and 46.33% of LSIL cases harboring an STI, respectively (p < 0.05). In brief, in a population with a high prevalence for STIs, especially Ureaplasma spp., an association was documented between bacterial pathogen detection and cervical HPV infection, as well as abnormal cytology; these findings merit further investigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Focus on Cervicovaginal Health: Microbiome, Sexually Transmitted Infections, and Beneficial Microbes)

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26 pages, 8053 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Polyinfection in Fish Aeromoniasis: A Study of Co-Isolated Aeromonas Species in Aeromonas veronii Outbreaks

by Yanelys Cantillo Villa, Adriana Triga and Pantelis Katharios

Pathogens 2023, 12(11), 1337; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12111337 - 10 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2054

Abstract

We studied the phenotypic and genomic characteristics related to the virulence and antibiotic resistance of two Aeromonas strains, which were co-isolated before an outbreak of Aeromonas veronii among diseased seabass on Agathonisi Island, Greece, in April 2015. The first strain, AG2.13.2, is a [...] Read more.

We studied the phenotypic and genomic characteristics related to the virulence and antibiotic resistance of two Aeromonas strains, which were co-isolated before an outbreak of Aeromonas veronii among diseased seabass on Agathonisi Island, Greece, in April 2015. The first strain, AG2.13.2, is a potentially pathogenic mesophilic variant of Aeromonas salmonicida, and the second, AG2.13.5, corresponds to an Aeromonas rivipollensis related to A. rivipollensis KN-Mc-11N1 with an ANI value of 97.32%. AG2.13.2 lacks the type III secretion system just like other mesophilic strains of A. salmonicida. This characteristic has been associated with lower virulence. However, the genome of AG2.13.2 contains other important virulence factors such as type II and type VI secretion systems, and toxins such as rtxA, aerolysin aer/act, and different types of hemolysins. The strain also carries several genes associated with antibiotic resistance such as the tetE efflux pump, and exhibits resistance to tetracycline, ampicillin, and oxolinic acid. In an in vivo challenge test with gilthead seabream larvae, the A. veronii bv sobria strain AG5.28.6 exhibited the highest virulence among all tested strains. Conversely, both A. salmonicida and A. rivipollensis showed minimal virulence when administered alone. Interestingly, when A. veronii bv sobria AG5.28.6 was co-administered with A. rivipollensis, the larvae survival probability increased compared to those exposed to A. veronii bv sobria AG5.28.6 alone. This finding indicates an antagonistic interaction between A. veronii bv sobria AG5.28.6 and A. rivipollensis AG2.13.5. The co-administration of A. veronii bv sobria AG5.28.6 with Aeromonas salmonicida did not yield distinct survival probabilities. Our results validate that the primary pathogen responsible for European seabass aeromoniasis is Aeromonas veronii bv sobria. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aeromonas: Genome, Transmission, Pathogenesis, and Treatment)

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35 pages, 17627 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Cultured Microbiome of Pollinated Maize Silks Shifts after Infection with Fusarium graminearum and Varies by Distance from the Site of Pathogen Inoculation

by Michelle E. H. Thompson, Anuja Shrestha, Jeffrey Rinne, Victor Limay-Rios, Lana Reid and Manish N. Raizada

Pathogens 2023, 12(11), 1322; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12111322 - 6 Nov 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2621

Abstract

Styles transmit pollen-derived sperm nuclei from pollen to ovules, but also transmit environmental pathogens. The microbiomes of styles are likely important for reproduction/disease, yet few studies exist. Whether style microbiome compositions are spatially responsive to pathogens is unknown. The maize pathogen Fusarium graminearum [...] Read more.

Styles transmit pollen-derived sperm nuclei from pollen to ovules, but also transmit environmental pathogens. The microbiomes of styles are likely important for reproduction/disease, yet few studies exist. Whether style microbiome compositions are spatially responsive to pathogens is unknown. The maize pathogen Fusarium graminearum enters developing grain through the style (silk). We hypothesized that F. graminearum treatment shifts the cultured transmitting silk microbiome (TSM) compared to healthy silks in a distance-dependent manner. Another objective of the study was to culture microbes for future application. Bacteria were cultured from husk-covered silks of 14 F. graminearum-treated diverse maize genotypes, proximal (tip) and distal (base) to the F. graminearum inoculation site. Long-read 16S sequences from 398 isolates spanned 35 genera, 71 species, and 238 OTUs. More bacteria were cultured from F. graminearum-inoculated tips (271 isolates) versus base (127 isolates); healthy silks were balanced. F. graminearum caused a collapse in diversity of ~20–25% across multiple taxonomic levels. Some species were cultured exclusively or, more often, from F. graminearum-treated silks (e.g., Delftia acidovorans, Klebsiella aerogenes, K. grimontii, Pantoea ananatis, Stenotrophomonas pavanii). Overall, the results suggest that F. graminearum alters the TSM in a distance-dependent manner. Many isolates matched taxa that were previously identified using V4-MiSeq (core and F. graminearum-induced), but long-read sequencing clarified the taxonomy and uncovered greater diversity than was initially predicted (e.g., within Pantoea). These isolates represent the first comprehensive cultured collection from pathogen-treated maize silks to facilitate biocontrol efforts and microbial marker-assisted breeding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Research on Fusarium: 2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 743 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Clinical Characteristics of Neurocysticercosis in a Peruvian Population-Based Epilepsy Cohort: A Descriptive Cross-Sectional Study of Baseline Clinical Intake

by Samantha E. Allen, Luz M. Moyano, Melissa T. Wardle, Carolina Guzman, Sofia S. Sanchez-Boluarte, Gabrielle Bonnet, Javier A. Bustos, Seth O’Neal and Hector H. Garcia

Pathogens 2023, 12(11), 1313; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12111313 - 3 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1399

Abstract

(1) Background: This study presents the baseline characteristics of a community-level population of people with epilepsy (n = 1975) living in an area endemic for Taenia solium, the pathogen responsible for neurocysticercosis (NCC). (2) Methods: Participants were sequentially enrolled in a clinical [...] Read more.

(1) Background: This study presents the baseline characteristics of a community-level population of people with epilepsy (n = 1975) living in an area endemic for Taenia solium, the pathogen responsible for neurocysticercosis (NCC). (2) Methods: Participants were sequentially enrolled in a clinical cohort from 2007 to 2020 in Tumbes, Peru. All participants provided demographic and clinical history and received clinical evaluations. Diagnostics, including neuroimaging, cysticercosis serologies, and EEG, were obtained where possible. The data presented are from the cross-sectional baseline assessment of cohort participants. (3) Results: Approximately 38% of participants met the criteria for NCC. Those with NCC were more likely to have adult-onset epilepsy, as well as a longer duration of epilepsy, as compared to their counterparts without NCC. Overall, the data indicate a large treatment gap, with only approximately a quarter of the baseline population with prescriptions for anti-seizure medications. (4) Conclusions: These data reveal a high proportion of NCC among people living with epilepsy in these communities, with limited health care resources. At baseline, 74% of the population were not receiving anti-seizure treatments. Further analyses of these data will clarify the natural history of the disease for this population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Taeniasis and Cysticercosis)

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11 pages, 875 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Prevalence and Molecular Characterization of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli from Food and Clinical Samples

by Khulud Alotaibi and Ashraf A. Khan

Pathogens 2023, 12(11), 1302; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12111302 - 31 Oct 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1614

Abstract

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) is one of the most prominent food-borne pathogens in humans. The current study aims to detect and to analyze the virulence factors, antibiotic resistance, and plasmid profiles for forty-six STEC strains, isolated from clinical and food strains. Pulsed-field [...] Read more.

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) is one of the most prominent food-borne pathogens in humans. The current study aims to detect and to analyze the virulence factors, antibiotic resistance, and plasmid profiles for forty-six STEC strains, isolated from clinical and food strains. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) was used to determine the genetic relatedness between different serotypes and sources of samples. The clinical samples were found to be resistant to Nb (100%), Tet (100%), Amp (20%), SXT (15%), and Kan (15%) antibiotics. In contrast, the food strains were found to be resistant to Nb (100%), Tet (33%), Amp (16.6%), and SXT (16.6%) antibiotics. The PFGE typing of the forty-six isolates was grouped into more than ten clusters, each with a similarity between 30% and 70%. Most of the isolates were found positive for more than five virulence genes (eae, hlyA, stx1, stx2, stx2f, stx2c, stx2e, stx2, nelB, pagC, sen, toxB, irp, efa, and efa1). All the isolates carried different sizes of the plasmids. The isolates were analyzed for plasmid replicon type by PCR, and 72.5% of the clinical isolates were found to contain X replicon-type plasmid, 50% of the clinical isolates contained FIB replicon-type plasmid, and 17.5% of the clinical isolates contained Y replicon-type plasmid. Three clinical isolates contained both I1 and Hi1 replicon-type plasmid. Only two food isolates contained B/O and W replicon-type plasmid. These results indicate that STEC strains have diverse clonal populations among food and clinical strains that are resistant to several antimicrobials. In conclusion, our findings indicate that food isolates of STEC strains harbor virulence, antimicrobial resistance, plasmid replicon typing determinants like those of other STEC strains from clinical strains. These results suggest that these strains are unique and may contribute to the virulence of the isolates. Therefore, surveillance and characterization of STEC strains can provide useful information about the prevalence of STEC in food and clinical sources. Furthermore, it will help to identify STEC serotypes that are highly pathogenic to humans and may emerge as a threat to public health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology and Molecular Pathogenesis of Antimicrobial Resistance and Virulence for Foodborne Pathogens)

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20 pages, 2843 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Drug-Resistant Aspergillus spp.: A Literature Review of Its Resistance Mechanisms and Its Prevalence in Europe

by Maria Antonia De Francesco

Pathogens 2023, 12(11), 1305; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12111305 - 31 Oct 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2102

Abstract

Infections due to the Aspergillus species constitute an important challenge for human health. Invasive aspergillosis represents a life-threatening disease, mostly in patients with immune defects. Drugs used for fungal infections comprise amphotericin B, triazoles, and echinocandins. However, in the last decade, an increased [...] Read more.

Infections due to the Aspergillus species constitute an important challenge for human health. Invasive aspergillosis represents a life-threatening disease, mostly in patients with immune defects. Drugs used for fungal infections comprise amphotericin B, triazoles, and echinocandins. However, in the last decade, an increased emergence of azole-resistant Aspergillus strains has been reported, principally belonging to Aspergillus fumigatus species. Therefore, both the early diagnosis of aspergillosis and its epidemiological surveillance are very important to establish the correct antifungal therapy and to ensure a successful patient outcome. In this paper, a literature review is performed to analyze the prevalence of Aspergillus antifungal resistance in European countries. Amphotericin B resistance is observed in 2.6% and 10.8% of Aspergillus fumigatus isolates in Denmark and Greece, respectively. A prevalence of 84% of amphotericin B-resistant Aspergillus flavus isolates is reported in France, followed by 49.4%, 35.1%, 21.7%, and 20% in Spain, Portugal, Greece, and amphotericin B resistance of Aspergillus niger isolates is observed in Greece and Belgium with a prevalence of 75% and 12.8%, respectively. The prevalence of triazole resistance of Aspergillus fumigatus isolates, the most studied mold obtained from the included studies, is 0.3% in Austria, 1% in Greece, 1.2% in Switzerland, 2.1% in France, 3.9% in Portugal, 4.9% in Italy, 5.3% in Germany, 6.1% in Denmark, 7.4% in Spain, 8.3% in Belgium, 11% in the Netherlands, and 13.2% in the United Kingdom. The mechanism of resistance is mainly driven by the TR₃₄/L98H mutation. In Europe, no in vivo resistance is reported for echinocandins. Future studies are needed to implement the knowledge on the spread of drug-resistant Aspergillus spp. with the aim of defining optimal treatment strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Fungal Pathogens)

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9 pages, 757 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Presence of a Parasite in the Head Tissues of a Threatened Fish (Bidyanus bidyanus, Terapontidae) from South-Eastern Australia

by Diane P. Barton, R. Keller Kopf, Xiaocheng Zhu and Shokoofeh Shamsi

Pathogens 2023, 12(11), 1296; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12111296 - 30 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1255

Abstract

The silver perch, Bidyanus bidyanus (Mitchell) (Terapontidae) is a freshwater fish, endemic to the Murray-Darling river system in south-eastern Australia. Population declines have led to the fish being listed as critically endangered by the Australian Government. Knowledge about parasites and diseases of wild [...] Read more.

The silver perch, Bidyanus bidyanus (Mitchell) (Terapontidae) is a freshwater fish, endemic to the Murray-Darling river system in south-eastern Australia. Population declines have led to the fish being listed as critically endangered by the Australian Government. Knowledge about parasites and diseases of wild populations of freshwater fish are limited in Australia. During an examination of wild-caught silver perch, digenean mesocercaria were observed in the head tissues. A total of five of the 11 silver perch collected from the Wakool River, New South Wales, were infected with mesocercaria. All mesocercaria were found in the head tissues; no mesocercaria were found encysted in the eye lens. The mesocercaria were found to belong to the family Strigeidae based on the sequences of their internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region. The lack of comparable sequences of strigeid digeneans from Australian hosts precludes being able to determine if the mesocercaria found in this study are a new species or representatives of an already described species. However, genetic results confirm that this is a different species to other digeneans previously described from silver perch, thus increasing the number of digeneans reported from B. bidyanus to three species. The presence of digenean mesocercaria in the head tissues of a wild population of silver perch, as found in the present study, is of potential conservation significance. Given the critically endangered conservation status of B. bidyanus, and previous evidence of strigeid infection altering fish behaviour, ecology, and predation mortality, further research on the potential impacts of infection on wild populations is warranted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aquatic Parasites)

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12 pages, 335 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Interactions between West Nile Virus and the Microbiota of Culex pipiens Vectors: A Literature Review

by Marta Garrigós, Mario Garrido, Guillermo Panisse, Jesús Veiga and Josué Martínez-de la Puente

Pathogens 2023, 12(11), 1287; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12111287 - 27 Oct 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1872

Abstract

The flavivirus West Nile virus (WNV) naturally circulates between mosquitoes and birds, potentially affecting humans and horses. Different species of mosquitoes play a role as vectors of WNV, with those of the Culex pipiens complex being particularly crucial for its circulation. Different biotic [...] Read more.

The flavivirus West Nile virus (WNV) naturally circulates between mosquitoes and birds, potentially affecting humans and horses. Different species of mosquitoes play a role as vectors of WNV, with those of the Culex pipiens complex being particularly crucial for its circulation. Different biotic and abiotic factors determine the capacity of mosquitoes for pathogen transmission, with the mosquito gut microbiota being recognized as an important one. Here, we review the published studies on the interactions between the microbiota of the Culex pipiens complex and WNV infections in mosquitoes. Most articles published so far studied the interactions between bacteria of the genus Wolbachia and WNV infections, obtaining variable results regarding the directionality of this relationship. In contrast, only a few studies investigate the role of the whole microbiome or other bacterial taxa in WNV infections. These studies suggest that bacteria of the genera Serratia and Enterobacter may enhance WNV development. Thus, due to the relevance of WNV in human and animal health and the important role of mosquitoes of the Cx. pipiens complex in its transmission, more research is needed to unravel the role of mosquito microbiota and those factors affecting this microbiota on pathogen epidemiology. In this respect, we finally propose future lines of research lines on this topic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue West Nile Virus and Other Zoonotic Infections)

22 pages, 926 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Avian Pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) in Broiler Breeders: An Overview

by Jiddu Joseph, Li Zhang, Pratima Adhikari, Jeffrey D. Evans and Reshma Ramachandran

Pathogens 2023, 12(11), 1280; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12111280 - 26 Oct 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5280

Abstract

Poultry meat is one of the major animal protein sources necessary to meet the global protein demand. Sustainability in broiler production is the key to achieving its continuous supply, and broiler breeders play a critical role in maintaining this sustainability by providing good [...] Read more.

Poultry meat is one of the major animal protein sources necessary to meet the global protein demand. Sustainability in broiler production is the key to achieving its continuous supply, and broiler breeders play a critical role in maintaining this sustainability by providing good quality chicks. Colibacillosis, the disease caused by avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC), causes severe economic losses to the poultry industry globally. Moreover, APEC causes an additional burden among broiler breeders, such as a decrease in egg production and mortality among these birds. There is vertical transmission of APEC to the broiler chicks through eggs, resulting in increased first-week mortality and subsequent horizontal transmission at the hatchery. In this regard, the vertical transmission of antibiotic resistance genes is another concern that needs attention. Controlling several diseases in broiler breeders would possibly reduce the first-week mortality in chicks, thereby maintaining the production level. For that, constant monitoring of the bacterial populations is critical. Moreover, amidst the increased antibiotic resistance pattern, more focus on alternative treatment strategies like vaccines, probiotics, and bacteriophages is necessary. Future research focusing on strategies to mitigate APEC in broiler breeders would be one of the finest solutions for sustainable broiler production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insight in Pathogenic Escherichia coli: Infections, Pathogenesis and Therapies)

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10 pages, 1807 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Genetic Evaluation of Bovine Papillomavirus Types Associated with Teat Papillomatosis in Polish Dairy Cattle with the Report of a New Putative Type

by Paulina Pyrek, Michał Bednarski, Jarosław Popiel, Magdalena Siedlecka and Magdalena Karwańska

Pathogens 2023, 12(11), 1278; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12111278 - 25 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1647

Abstract

Teat papillomatosis is reported to be one of the factors causing mastitis and milk losses in dairy cattle. Little is known about bovine papillomavirus (BPV) circulation in the European cattle population, and no reports can yet be found about its prevalence in Polish [...] Read more.

Teat papillomatosis is reported to be one of the factors causing mastitis and milk losses in dairy cattle. Little is known about bovine papillomavirus (BPV) circulation in the European cattle population, and no reports can yet be found about its prevalence in Polish herds. In this study, 177 BPV-like lesions were collected from teats of 109 slaughtered cows. BPV was identified in 39 of the examined animals, using PCR amplification and Sanger dideoxy sequencing. In total, 10 BPV types were isolated, among which the most common were infections caused by types 8 and 7. Macroscopically, “rice-grain” type lesions dominated (76%) and were mainly found on one teat (57.4%). The diversity of BPV types causing teat papillomatosis in Polish cows seems to be large, with nine already known types isolated and a new putative type found. The spread of new types among the worldwide cattle population can be seen for the first time, as type 25 and so called isolates BPV42 and BPV43 were found in the European cattle population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Viral Pathogens)

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