Next Issue
Volume 15, May
Previous Issue
Volume 15, March
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
4.8
2.7
Journals
Brain Sciences
Volume 15
Issue 4
share announcement

Brain Sci., Volume 15, Issue 4 (April 2025) – 98 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Can AI offer support to families facing disorders of consciousness? Caregivers of patients with prolonged disorders of consciousness often navigate overwhelming uncertainty. In this study, we tested two ChatGPT models (4o and o1) with realistic questions about clinical data, diagnostics, and therapy, framed as if coming from a patient’s relative. We assessed not only the accuracy of responses in English and Italian, but also their empathetic tone. A total of 57 open-ended questions were submitted to both models, and each response was independently reviewed by expert clinicians. Most responses were correct (80.7–96.8%), with ChatGPT 4o demonstrating greater empathy. Our findings suggest these tools could offer meaningful informational support to caregivers—provided their limitations are clearly understood. View this paper
  • Issues are regarded as officially published after their release is announced to the table of contents alert mailing list.
  • You may sign up for e-mail alerts to receive table of contents of newly released issues.
  • PDF is the official format for papers published in both, html and pdf forms. To view the papers in pdf format, click on the "PDF Full-text" link, and use the free Adobe Reader to open them.
Order results
Result details
Section
Show export options expand_more Show export options expand_less
Select all
Export citation of selected articles as:
15 pages, 1527 KiB  
Article
Altering Temporal Dynamics of Sleepiness and Mood During Sleep Deprivation: Evidence from Resting-State EEG Microstates
by Duo Bai, Xinrui Fan, Chuqin Xiang and Xu Lei
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 423; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040423 - 21 Apr 2025
Abstract
Objective: Sleep deprivation negatively affects mood and sleepiness across subjective, objective, behavioral, and neuroimaging measures. However, the relationship between abnormal brain dynamics after sleep deprivation and mood or sleepiness impairments, from a temporal perspective, remains underexplored. Electroencephalogram microstate analysis offers a valuable approach [...] Read more.
Objective: Sleep deprivation negatively affects mood and sleepiness across subjective, objective, behavioral, and neuroimaging measures. However, the relationship between abnormal brain dynamics after sleep deprivation and mood or sleepiness impairments, from a temporal perspective, remains underexplored. Electroencephalogram microstate analysis offers a valuable approach for investigating the large-scale dynamics of brain networks. Methods: We implemented a strict sleep deprivation protocol with 71 participants, collecting resting-state electroencephalogram data, subjective sleepiness, objective alertness, and mood assessments after normal sleep and sleep deprivation (SD) conditions. Microstate time parameters were compared between sleep control (SC) and SD conditions. Additionally, we investigated how changes in these parameters correlated with subjective or objective measures of sleepiness and mood changes between SC and SD. Results: SD significantly decreased the mean duration and occurrence of microstate B while increasing those of microstate C. A decrease in microstate B occurrence significantly correlated with a higher Karolinska Sleepiness Scale score, whereas a reduction in microstate B duration indicated an increased response time on the Psychomotor Vigilance Performance. No significant associations were observed between microstate parameters and positive mood decline between SC and SD. Pearson correlation analysis was performed on the positive mood scores in both conditions. The findings demonstrated a significant positive relationship between positive mood scores and the mean duration of microstate B under SD conditions. Conclusions: Using a large SD dataset, this study demonstrated that subjective or objective sleepiness and positive mood were associated with decreased microstate B. These findings suggest that SD disrupts neural dynamics within the visual network. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Behavioral Neuroscience)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 2008 KiB  
Article
A Study of the Central Motor Drives Interactions Between the Eyes, and an Index Finger, and a Little Finger
by Shiho Fukuda, Han Gao, Naoki Hamada and Koichi Hiraoka
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 422; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040422 - 20 Apr 2025
Abstract
Background/Objectives: When manipulating an object placed on the palm, the eyes and fingers move together. To perform this task precisely, coordination of the eyes and fingers is needed. Based on this view, the present study examined the three-way interaction among the central [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: When manipulating an object placed on the palm, the eyes and fingers move together. To perform this task precisely, coordination of the eyes and fingers is needed. Based on this view, the present study examined the three-way interaction among the central motor drives to the eyes, index finger, and little finger. Methods: Healthy male participants abducted the right index and/or little finger with or without concomitant saccadic eye movement to the right in response to a visual cue, while the forearm was in the pronated or supinated position. We measured the reaction time (RT), velocity, and amplitude of the eye movements, as well as the RT and amplitude of the electromyographic (EMG) responses in the prime movers for the independent and dependent finger movements. Results: The velocity, amplitude, and RT of the eye movement were not changed by the additional involvement of the finger movement, indicating that the central motor drive to the finger does not influence the eye motor excitability and central motor drive to the eyes. On the one hand, the RT of the finger was not changed by the eye movement, indicating that the central motor drive to the eyes does not influence the central motor drive to the finger muscle. On the other hand, the EMG amplitude in the first dorsal interosseous muscle at the movement onset decreased during the concomitant eye movement, indicating that the central motor drive to the eyes suppresses the motor excitability of the independent finger muscle. The RT increased and EMG amplitude decreased in one finger muscle when the other finger concurrently moved, indicating that the central motor drive to one finger muscle suppresses the motor excitability of and central motor drive to the other finger muscle. The change in the RT and EMG amplitude in one finger muscle caused by the concomitant execution of the other finger movement and/or eye movement varied with forearm position, indicating that forearm proprioception influences the interaction of the motor execution processes among the fingers and eyes. Conclusions: The central motor drive to the eyes or finger muscles suppresses the motor excitability of the other finger muscles and the central motor drive to that muscle, but the central motor drive to the finger muscles does not influence those for the eyes. Forearm proprioception influences the motor excitability of the finger muscle and central motor drive to that muscle. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Sensory and Motor Neuroscience)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

26 pages, 1003 KiB  
Systematic Review
From Gaze to Game: A Systematic Review of Eye-Tracking Applications in Basketball
by Michela Alemanno, Ilaria Di Pompeo, Martina Marcaccio, Daniele Canini, Giuseppe Curcio and Simone Migliore
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 421; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040421 - 20 Apr 2025
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Eye-tracking technology has gained increasing attention in sports science, as it provides valuable insights into visual attention, decision-making, and motor planning. This systematic review examines the application of eye-tracking technology in basketball, highlighting its role in analyzing cognitive and perceptual strategies in [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Eye-tracking technology has gained increasing attention in sports science, as it provides valuable insights into visual attention, decision-making, and motor planning. This systematic review examines the application of eye-tracking technology in basketball, highlighting its role in analyzing cognitive and perceptual strategies in players, referees, and coaches. Methods: A systematic search was conducted following PRISMA guidelines. Studies published up until December 2024 were retrieved from PubMed and Web of Science using keywords related to basketball, eye tracking, and visual search. The inclusion criteria focused on studies using eye-tracking technology to assess athletes, referees, and coaches. A total of 1706 articles were screened, of which 19 met the eligibility criteria. Results: Eye-tracking studies have shown that expert basketball players exhibit longer quiet eye (QE) durations and more efficient gaze behaviors compared to novices. In high-pressure situations, skilled players maintain more stable QE characteristics, leading to better shot accuracy. Referees rely on efficient gaze strategies to make split-second decisions, although less experienced referees tend to neglect key visual cues. In coaching, eye-tracking studies suggest that guided gaze techniques improve tactical understanding in novice players but have limited effects on experienced athletes. Conclusions: Eye tracking is a powerful tool for studying cognitive and behavioral functioning in basketball, offering valuable insights for performance enhancement and training strategies. Future research should explore real-game settings using mobile eye trackers and integrate artificial intelligence to further refine gaze-based training methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Neuropsychology)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 3585 KiB  
Article
Optimizing Strategies in Patients Affected by Tumors Infiltrating the Skull: A Single Center Experience
by Giuseppe Emmanuele Umana, Sruthi Ranganathan, Salvatore Marrone, Jessica Naimo, Matteo Giunta, Angelo Spitaleri, Marco Fricia, Gianluca Ferini and Gianluca Scalia
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 420; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040420 - 20 Apr 2025
Abstract
Background: One-step cranioplasty combined with tumor removal is a recognized approach in neuro-oncology for patients with neoplastic skull invasion. The use of advanced technologies, including Mixed Reality (MR), has introduced new possibilities in surgical workflows. MR technology may provide additional benefits in preoperative [...] Read more.
Background: One-step cranioplasty combined with tumor removal is a recognized approach in neuro-oncology for patients with neoplastic skull invasion. The use of advanced technologies, including Mixed Reality (MR), has introduced new possibilities in surgical workflows. MR technology may provide additional benefits in preoperative planning, patient engagement, and intraoperative guidance. Can the proposed treatment algorithm, which includes Mixed Reality (MR) for preoperative planning and intraoperative navigation, demonstrate tangible utility and improve outcomes in the surgical management of skull-invasive tumors? Methods: A retrospective study was conducted on 14 patients treated at Cannizzaro Hospital, Catania, Italy, for skull-invasive tumors. The treatment algorithm incorporated tumor removal and one-step cranioplasty using custom-made titanium alloy meshes. Standard intraoperative navigation was compared with MR-based navigation. MR headsets and the Virtual Surgery Intelligence (VSI) platform were employed for preoperative planning, surgical guidance, and patient/family communication. Tumor types included nine meningiomas and five other tumor variants. Results: The integration of MR proved beneficial for preoperative planning, facilitating enhanced visualization of patient anatomy and aiding communication with patients and families. MR-assisted intraoperative navigation offered improved anatomical familiarity but demonstrated slightly lower accuracy compared with standard navigation. Postoperative outcomes were satisfactory across the cohort, with no significant complications reported. Conclusions: The study highlights the potential utility of the proposed treatment algorithm including MR technology in the surgical management of skull-invasive tumors. While MR provides enhanced visualization and preoperative engagement, standard navigation remains more precise during surgery. Nevertheless, MR serves as a valuable complementary tool, and its role in neuro-oncological workflows is expected to grow with technological advancements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Collection Series: Insight into Neurosurgery)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 2321 KiB  
Article
More than a Bundle? Developing Adaptive Guidance for Task Selection in an Online, Semantic-Based Cognitive Stimulation Program
by Ana Rita Batista, Vasiliki Folia and Susana Silva
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 419; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040419 - 20 Apr 2025
Abstract
Background: Cognitive stimulation programs typically consist of task collections (“bundles”) designed to cover various aspects of a cognitive domain and/or sustain user engagement. However, task order is often overlooked, despite variations in difficulty based on structure or mode of implementation. This study examined [...] Read more.
Background: Cognitive stimulation programs typically consist of task collections (“bundles”) designed to cover various aspects of a cognitive domain and/or sustain user engagement. However, task order is often overlooked, despite variations in difficulty based on structure or mode of implementation. This study examined users’ performance accuracy across the eight tasks that comprise the BOX semantic-based program, adapted for the Cerup/CQ online platforms. Our ultimate goal was to map the tasks onto increasing levels of challenge within thematic clusters to provide guidance for personalized task selection. Methods: After adapting the program into Portuguese using original materials based on BOX task descriptions, we made Cerup and CQ (which share the same content but have different layouts) available as free web-based tools. Participants, primarily older adults without dementia, were invited to use these platforms for cognitive stimulation. We analyzed accuracy data as a function of activity-related characteristics (complexity scores, sentence- vs. word-level) as well as participants’ spontaneous task selection. Results: Task characteristics influenced performance accuracy, indicating different levels of challenge across activities. However, spontaneous task selection did not follow any discernible pattern beyond the spatial contiguity of activity buttons, which was unrelated to participants’ likelihood of success. Based on these findings, we defined optimal navigation paths for the eight tasks. Conclusions: Challenge-based, active guidance for task selection appears justified and necessary within the BOX/Cerup/CQ programs. Additionally, the method we developed may help other programs enhance user experience and optimize task progression. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Neuropsychology)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 9032 KiB  
Article
Cortical Representation of Food-Related Odors in Gustatory Areas Differs According to Their Taste Association: An fMRI Study
by Mariano Mastinu, Divesh Thaploo, Jonathan Warr and Thomas Hummel
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 418; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040418 - 19 Apr 2025
Viewed by 89
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Gustatory stimuli are primarily processed in the insula, while the primary olfactory cortex involves the piriform cortex. Relatively little is known about the central-nervous integration of stimuli from foods. The main aim of this study in healthy participants was to evaluate [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Gustatory stimuli are primarily processed in the insula, while the primary olfactory cortex involves the piriform cortex. Relatively little is known about the central-nervous integration of stimuli from foods. The main aim of this study in healthy participants was to evaluate the processing of olfactory stimuli which are associated with gustatory sensations. Methods: Using a 3T MRI scanner, 47 healthy, right-handed women (mean age: 26.2 ± 4.7 years) with normal senses of taste and smell underwent functional scans. During the analysis, we presented isointense odors (2 “sweet” and 2 “sour”) to subjects using air-dilution olfactometry. Odor delivery (8 s) was alternated with the presentation of odorless air (12 s) and was repeated 10 times. Between each session, participants were asked to associate a taste with the odor. Results: The gustatory areas (insula and frontal operculum) were activated by exposure to odors. In addition, increased activations were observed in the bilateral angular gyrus, orbitofrontal cortex, and right caudate and nucleus accumbens during the perception of sour-like odors compared to sweet-like odors. Conclusions: The distinct neural responses to different odor categories suggest that the brain processes odors with varying hedonic and sensory characteristics through distinct neural pathways. Future research could explore how these findings translate to real-world food preferences and dietary behaviors, particularly in relation to individual differences in taste perception. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Olfactory System and Brain Diseases: Investigating the Related Structures, Neurocircuits, and Functional Mechanisms)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 257 KiB  
Article
Instrumental Activities of Daily Living in Neurocognitive Disorders: Determinants and Clinical Implications for Health Promotion
by Anna Tsiakiri, Spyridon Plakias, Christos Kokkotis, Pinelopi Vlotinou, Sotiria Kyriazidou, Georgios Giarmatzis, Stylianos Kallivoulos, Aikaterini Terzoudi, Dimitrios Tsiptsios, Souzana Merai, Chrysoula Emmanouilidou, Christos Kariotis, Anna Kanidou, Nikolaos Aggelousis, Konstantinos Vadikolias and Foteini Christidi
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 417; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040417 - 19 Apr 2025
Viewed by 249
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADL) are the key indicators of the autonomy and functional ability in older adults with neurocognitive disorders (NCDs). However, the specific predictors of IADL performance across the NCD spectrum remains insufficiently characterized. This study aimed to [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADL) are the key indicators of the autonomy and functional ability in older adults with neurocognitive disorders (NCDs). However, the specific predictors of IADL performance across the NCD spectrum remains insufficiently characterized. This study aimed to identify the cognitive, motor, and caregiver-related determinants of the IADL in individuals with minor and major NCDs. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted involving 117 participants referred from a university-based dementia clinic. Standardized tools were administered to evaluate their IADL performance (Lawton IADL Scale), cognition [Addenbrooke’s Cognitive Examination III (ACE-III)], Functional Cognitive Assessment Scale (FUCAS)], motor functions, balance, and mobility [Tinetti Test, Timed Up and Go (TUG)], emotional status [Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS)], neuropsychiatric symptoms [Neuropsychiatric Inventory (NPI)], and caregiver burden [Zarit Burden Interview (ZBI)]. Multiple regression analyses were performed to identify the significant predictors of IADL performance. Results: In the total sample (n = 117), the IADL performance was significantly predicted via ACE-III, FUCAS, and Tinetti-balance (adjusted R2 = 0.729). In the minor NCD group (n = 41), the significant predictors included sex, FUCAS, GDS, Tinetti-balance, and TUG (adjusted R2 = 0.725). In the major NCD group (n = 76), ACE-III, FUCAS, and Tinetti-balance remained the significant predictors (adjusted R2 = 0.634). Female sex and a worse profile on the other variables were associated with lower IADL scores. Conclusions: Global cognitive decline, executive dysfunction in everyday problem-solving situations, and balance impairment are the key determinants of IADL performance across both minor and major NCDs. Female sex and depressive symptoms further predicted the IADL performance in the minor NCD group. These findings highlight the need for multidisciplinary assessment and intervention strategies to promote health and autonomy and preserve the functional independence in older adults with NCDs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges and Perspectives of Neurological Disorders: Series II)
14 pages, 5854 KiB  
Article
Homocysteine Mediates Cognitive Inflexibility Induced by Stress via Targeting PIN1
by Xiaobing Chen, Ling Zhang, Bing Liu, Huafeng Dong, Shijia Zhang, Xue Wang, Zhaowei Sun, Fang Xie, Lingjia Qian and Yun Zhao
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 416; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040416 - 19 Apr 2025
Viewed by 110
Abstract
Background: Increasing evidence shows that HCY plays an important role in stress-induced cognitive dysfunction, and HCY significantly promotes the decline of cognitive function. Stress has been reported to cause elevated HCY in the hippocampus of mice. Cognitive flexibility refers to the ability of [...] Read more.
Background: Increasing evidence shows that HCY plays an important role in stress-induced cognitive dysfunction, and HCY significantly promotes the decline of cognitive function. Stress has been reported to cause elevated HCY in the hippocampus of mice. Cognitive flexibility refers to the ability of individuals to quickly adjust their neurobehavioral strategies to different situations or to solve different tasks. Aims: This study aims to explore the role of HCY in the impairment of cognitive flexibility induced by stress and its possible regulatory mechanism. Methods and Results: First, we examined changes in the protein and mRNA levels of the cognitive flexibility effector molecule, PIN1, during stress in mice. The results show that stress can cause a decline in cognitive flexibility in mice and lead to an increase in PIN1. Moreover, through the use of in vitro experiments, we found that HCY could induce an increase in PIN1 expression in neurons. Further in vivo experiments were used to investigate the effect of VitB on HCY and PIN1 and evaluated the therapeutic effect of VitB on stress-induced impairment of cognitive flexibility. The results show that VitB decreased the levels of HCY in plasma and the hippocampus, alleviated the stress-induced impairment of cognitive flexibility, and reduced the expression of PIN1. Conclusions: These results suggest that the impairment of cognitive flexibility induced by stress can be inhibited by regulating the content of HCY. Collectively, our findings highlight therapeutic strategies aimed at improving HCY treatment for impairments in cognitive flexibility. Full article
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 259 KiB  
Article
Attachment, Shame, and Trauma
by Carol George
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 415; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040415 - 19 Apr 2025
Viewed by 146
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Early parent–child attachment interactions guided by right-to-right brain synchrony are the foundation of emotional development and the quality of attachment relationships. Interactive failures are the hallmark of not only insecurity and trauma but also the internalization of shame. The purpose of this [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Early parent–child attachment interactions guided by right-to-right brain synchrony are the foundation of emotional development and the quality of attachment relationships. Interactive failures are the hallmark of not only insecurity and trauma but also the internalization of shame. The purpose of this study was to advance our understanding of the relation between attachment and shame. The study explored a range of shame experiences, from normal socialization to harsh treatment and abuse. Debilitating shame was expected for individuals who had not mourned attachment trauma. Methods: Attachment was assessed using The Adult Attachment Projective (AAP) system in a sample of 245 adults. The AAP identifies the traditional regulated attachment classifications (Secure, Dismissing, Preoccupied) and, in addition to Unresolved attachment, three forms of incomplete mourning—Failed Mourning, Preoccupied with Personal Suffering, and Traumatized Secure. The study used participants’ narratives regarding three AAP classifications when “alone” to examine individual differences in representations of the shamed self contexts portraying the self in Private, Exposed, and Threatening situations. Results: All study hypotheses were confirmed. Adults with regulated attachments (Secure, Dismissing, Preoccupied) were significantly less likely to ascribe shame to the AAP pictures than traumatized adults. The patterns of results were the same when comparing differences in shame intensity and outcomes. There were no differences in shame intensity in the regulated group. Shame intensity for the Traumatized Secures was somewhat greater. There was a significant increase observed in the traumatized groups, with the Unresolved group showing the highest ratings. Reparative outcomes were significantly related to attachment security, although not to the extent expected. Secure, regulated insecure (Dismissing, Preoccupied), and some traumatized individuals described reconciliation and functional restitution. Unresolved individuals left shame unremedied. Regression analysis demonstrated that attachment classification was a greater predictor of shame intensity than outcomes. Conculusions: Attachment and neurological development are intertwined. Childhood interactive failures are deeply traumatic. If not mourned, shame takes its place in the identity core. This study provides clinicians with an in-depth perspective on attachment and shame assessment for goal-setting in therapy, consonant with their patients’ attachment representations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State of the Art in Human Attachment)
13 pages, 1264 KiB  
Article
Equidistant Landmarks Fail to Produce the Blocking Effect in Spatial Learning Using a Virtual Water Maze Task with Healthy Adults: A Role for Cognitive Mapping?
by Róisín Deery and Seán Commins
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 414; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040414 - 19 Apr 2025
Viewed by 148
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Cue competition is a feature of associative learning, whereby during learning, cues compete with each other, based on their relative salience, to influence subsequent performance. Blocking is a feature of cue competition where prior knowledge of a cue (X) will interfere with [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Cue competition is a feature of associative learning, whereby during learning, cues compete with each other, based on their relative salience, to influence subsequent performance. Blocking is a feature of cue competition where prior knowledge of a cue (X) will interfere with the subsequent learning of a second cue (XY). When tested with the second cue (Y) alone, participants show an impairment in responding. While blocking has been observed across many domains, including spatial learning, previous research has raised questions regarding replication and the conditions necessary for it to occur. Furthermore, two prominent spatial learning theories predict contrary results for blocking. Associative learning accounts predict that the addition of a cue will lead to a blocking effect and impaired performance upon testing. Whereas the cognitive map theory suggests that the novel cue will be integrated into a map with no subsequent impairment in performance. Methods: Using a virtual water maze task, we investigated the blocking effect in human participants. Results: Results indicated that the cue learned in phase 1 of the experiment did not interfere with learning of a subsequent cue introduced in phase 2. Conclusions: This suggests that blocking did not occur and supports a cognitive mapping approach in human spatial learning. However, the relative location of the cues relative to the goal and how this might determine the learning strategy used by participants was discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Neuropsychology)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 7750 KiB  
Systematic Review
Risk of Cerebrovascular Events in Deep Brain Stimulation for Parkinson’s Disease Focused on STN and GPi: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
by Cristofer Zarate-Calderon, Carlos Castillo-Rangel, Iraís Viveros-Martínez, Estefanía Castro-Castro, Luis I. García and Gerardo Marín
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 413; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040413 - 18 Apr 2025
Viewed by 191
Abstract
Background/Introduction: Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder treated with deep brain stimulation (DBS) for advanced stages, targeting the subthalamic nucleus (STN) or the internal globus pallidus (GPi). Despite DBS’s symptomatic benefits, cerebrovascular events (CVEs) remain a concern. This study assessed [...] Read more.
Background/Introduction: Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder treated with deep brain stimulation (DBS) for advanced stages, targeting the subthalamic nucleus (STN) or the internal globus pallidus (GPi). Despite DBS’s symptomatic benefits, cerebrovascular events (CVEs) remain a concern. This study assessed CVE risk in PD patients undergoing DBS. Methods: We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis following PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Studies published between 2014 and 2024 that reported CVEs in PD patients treated with DBS-STN or DBS-GPi were included. Data on CVEs, DBS targets, perioperative period, and microelectrode recording (MER) use were extracted, and probability proportions were pooled using a random-effects model. Results: Twenty-three studies (4795 patients) were included. The overall CVE probability was 2.71% (95% CI: 2.27–3.18%). Descriptive probabilities were 2.56% (95% CI: 1.94–3.24%) for STN and 0.93% (95% CI: 0.00–3.08%) for GPi. Hemorrhagic events were most common (STN: 2.47%; GPi: 1.98%), while ischemic events were rare (STN: 0.07%; GPi: 1.98%). Note that GPi estimates are based on a considerably smaller population and should be interpreted with caution. Postoperative CVEs (1.74%) were more frequent than intraoperative events (0.17%), and MER use did not significantly alter risk (MER: 2.89% vs. NON-MER: 2.92%). Conclusions: Our results suggest that DBS in PD is associated with a relatively low CVE risk (~2.7%), with hemorrhage being the most frequent type; CVEs remain a potential risk factor. Comprehensive evaluation of patient-specific factors and further prospective studies focusing on CVE outcomes are essential to optimize DBS safety in managing PD. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Neurodegenerative Diseases)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

13 pages, 2762 KiB  
Article
Research on Adaptive Discriminating Method of Brain–Computer Interface for Motor Imagination
by Jifeng Gong, Huitong Liu, Fang Duan, Yan Che and Zheng Yan
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 412; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040412 - 18 Apr 2025
Viewed by 164
Abstract
(1) Background: Brain–computer interface (BCI) technology represents a cutting-edge field that integrates brain intelligence with machine intelligence. Unlike BCIs that rely on external stimuli, motor imagery-based BCIs (MI-BCIs) generate usable brain signals based on an individual’s imagination of specific motor actions. Due [...] Read more.
(1) Background: Brain–computer interface (BCI) technology represents a cutting-edge field that integrates brain intelligence with machine intelligence. Unlike BCIs that rely on external stimuli, motor imagery-based BCIs (MI-BCIs) generate usable brain signals based on an individual’s imagination of specific motor actions. Due to the highly individualized nature of these signals, identifying individuals who are better suited for MI-BCI applications and improving its efficiency is critical. (2) Methods: This study collected four motor imagery tasks (left hand, right hand, foot, and tongue) from 50 healthy subjects and evaluated MI-BCI adaptability through classification accuracy. Functional networks were constructed using the weighted phase lag index (WPLI), and relevant graph theory parameters were calculated to explore the relationship between motor imagery adaptability and functional networks. (3) Results: Research has demonstrated a strong correlation between the network characteristics of tongue imagination and MI-BCI adaptability. Specifically, the nodal degree and characteristic path length in the right hemisphere were found to be significantly correlated with classification accuracy (p < 0.05). (4) Conclusions: The findings of this study offer new insights into the functional network mechanisms of motor imagery, suggesting that tongue imagination holds potential as a predictor of MI-BCI adaptability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Computational Neuroscience and Neuroinformatics)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 2581 KiB  
Article
The Neural Markers of Perceptual Uncertainty/Curiosity—A Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Pilot Study
by Adrian Korniluk, Barbara Gawda, Małgorzata Chojak and Anna Gawron
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 411; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040411 - 18 Apr 2025
Viewed by 204
Abstract
Background: Curiosity is an immanent aspect of human experience linked to motivation, information-seeking, and learning processes. Previous research has highlighted the significant role of the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) in curiosity-driven behaviors, particularly in processing uncertainty and evaluating information. Methods: This study aimed to [...] Read more.
Background: Curiosity is an immanent aspect of human experience linked to motivation, information-seeking, and learning processes. Previous research has highlighted the significant role of the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) in curiosity-driven behaviors, particularly in processing uncertainty and evaluating information. Methods: This study aimed to examine cortical activation during the induction of perceptual uncertainty using a modified blurred picture paradigm. A total of 15 participants were tested with fNIRS (functional near-infrared spectroscopy) while viewing pairs of images designed to induce perceptual uncertainty. Results: The results revealed a differential hemodynamic response in one of the analyzed channels associated with orbitofrontal cortex activation, with higher activity when uncertainty was reduced (the matching condition compared to the non-matching condition). Conclusions: These findings confirm the existence of neural pathways of curiosity. Furthermore, our study also highlights the spatial limitations of fNIRS in precisely localizing OFC activity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Behavioral Neuroscience)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 456 KiB  
Case Report
EMG-Triggered Functional Electrical Stimulation for Central Facial Palsy Following Stroke: A Clinical Case Report
by Frauke Johannes, Anna Maria Pekacka-Egli, Simone Köhler, Andreas Disko, Jan von Meyenburg and Bartosz Bujan
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 410; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040410 - 17 Apr 2025
Viewed by 489
Abstract
Background: Central facial palsy (CFP) is a common condition following stroke, typically affecting the lower face and causing symptoms such as drooling, dysarthria, and facial asymmetry. Despite available rehabilitation methods, the evidence supporting their effectiveness is limited. Electromyography (EMG)-triggered Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES) [...] Read more.
Background: Central facial palsy (CFP) is a common condition following stroke, typically affecting the lower face and causing symptoms such as drooling, dysarthria, and facial asymmetry. Despite available rehabilitation methods, the evidence supporting their effectiveness is limited. Electromyography (EMG)-triggered Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES) has shown promise in neurorehabilitation for motor impairments, but its application to CFP remains unclear. Methods: This case report explores the use of EMG-triggered FES in a 77-year-old patient with CFP following a severe ischemic stroke of the middle cerebral artery (MCA). Therapy, focused on stimulating the orbicularis oris muscle to address persistent drooling and improve facial symmetry, was alongside usual care. The stimulation duration was 5–15 min, frequency 35 Hz, and pulse duration 300 µs, applied 5 times a week. Stimulation duration was adjusted based on the patient’s progress. Results: The patient underwent 16 sessions of EMG-triggered FES over four weeks. Post-therapy reassessment with the Sunnybrook Facial Grading System (SFGS) showed an improvement in facial motor function, with the score increasing from 58/100 to 78/100. Reassessment of the Facial Disability Index (FDI) revealed significant improvement in physical function (55 to 85 points), though the social function score slightly decreased (76 to 64 points). Improvements in dysarthria and the complete resolution of drooling were reflected in the physical function domain of the FDI and the Allensbach Dysarthria Severity Scale. Conclusions: The results highlight that EMG-triggered FES was well tolerated and effectively supported therapy, contributing to the resolution of drooling, improved facial symmetry, and enhanced speech function. Future research should focus on randomized controlled trials to confirm its effectiveness and determine optimal therapy parameters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Neurorehabilitation: Emerging Techniques and Technologies)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

30 pages, 2218 KiB  
Review
Prevention and Management of Spinal Cord Ischemia After Aortic Surgery: An Umbrella Review
by Alexandros G. Brotis, Adamantios Kalogeras, Metaxia Bareka, Eleni Arnaoutoglou, Kostas Spanos, Miltiadis Matsagkas and Kostas N. Fountas
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 409; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040409 - 17 Apr 2025
Viewed by 105
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Spinal cord injury is a devastating complication of aortic surgery, with significant morbidity and mortality. This review aimed to summarize the current literature on preventing and managing spinal cord ischemia after open and endovascular aortic repair. Methods: We conducted a comprehensive [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Spinal cord injury is a devastating complication of aortic surgery, with significant morbidity and mortality. This review aimed to summarize the current literature on preventing and managing spinal cord ischemia after open and endovascular aortic repair. Methods: We conducted a comprehensive review of PubMed, Scopus, and the Web of Science, focusing on systematic reviews and meta-analyses of the pathophysiology, risk factors, and strategies for mitigating the risk of spinal cord injury after aortic repair. We assessed the quality of the reporting for the eligible studies using the AMSTAR-2 tool and evaluated the strength of the evidence using the GRADE approach. Due to the absence of homogeneous clinical data, the evidence was synthesized in a narrative form. Results: Spinal cord ischemia can occur after both open and endovascular aortic repair, with a higher incidence reported in more extensive thoraco-abdominal aortic aneurysm repairs. The underlying pathogenesis is largely understudied. Several preventive strategies have been partially investigated, including cerebrospinal fluid drainage, hypothermia, and distal aortic perfusion. While the employment of neuromonitoring has been established in spine surgery, its efficacy in aortic repair remains uncertain due to confounding factors like hypothermia, anesthesia medications, and cardiopulmonary bypass. The prompt management of spinal cord complications is crucial to optimizing outcomes. No clear treatment algorithm has been universally adopted. Conclusions: Spinal cord ischemia remains a major challenge in aortic surgery, with a significant impact on patient outcomes. Further research is needed to elucidate the relevant pathophysiology and develop more effective intraoperative monitoring and management strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Latest Exploration of Cerebrovascular Diseases: From Preclinical Research to Treatment)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 4138 KiB  
Article
Longitudinal Trajectories of Cognitive Function Among Chinese Middle-Aged and Older Adults: The Role of Sarcopenia and Depressive Symptoms
by Shengxuan Jin, Jianqian Chao, Qian Jin, Beibei Yang, Gangrui Tan, Leixia Wang and Yanqian Wu
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 408; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040408 - 17 Apr 2025
Viewed by 178
Abstract
Objectives: The longitudinal relationship between sarcopenia, depression, and cognitive impairment has been insufficiently studied in China. This study aimed to characterize the association between sarcopenia and cognitive impairment and the mediating role of depression using nationally representative data. Methods: 7091 middle-aged and older [...] Read more.
Objectives: The longitudinal relationship between sarcopenia, depression, and cognitive impairment has been insufficiently studied in China. This study aimed to characterize the association between sarcopenia and cognitive impairment and the mediating role of depression using nationally representative data. Methods: 7091 middle-aged and older adults were analyzed from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) across three waves (2011, 2013, and 2015). Cognitive trajectories were modeled using a group-based trajectory model (GBTM), while multivariable ordinal logistic regression was employed to evaluate the associations with cognitive trajectories. The mediating role of depressive symptoms was assessed through bootstrap mediation analysis and cross-lagged panel modeling (CLPM). Results: Trajectory analysis identified four distinct cognitive function patterns: “High and Stable” trajectory (n = 2563, 36.73%), “Middle and Stable” group (n = 2860, 38.76%), “Middle and Decline” group (n = 1280, 18.62%), and “Low and Decline” group (n = 388, 5.90%). Sarcopenia and depressive symptoms were associated with the “Low and Decline” trajectory of cognitive function [Overall: OR (95%CI) of 0.315 (0.259, 0.382) and 0.417 (0.380, 0.459)]. Mediation analysis indicated that depressive symptoms accounted for 11.78% of the relationship between sarcopenia and cognitive trajectories. The cross-lagged panel modeling demonstrated a significant mediation pathway of “T1 cognitive function → T2 depression → T3 sarcopenia”, with T2 depression mediating 5.31% of the total effect. Conclusions: Our study identified four distinct cognitive trajectories, with sarcopenia and depressive symptoms significantly associated with worse cognitive trajectories over time. Depressive symptoms mediated the relationship between sarcopenia and cognitive function. This highlights the importance of integrating mental health and physical health interventions to address the interconnected risks associated with aging. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Neuropsychiatry)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 3039 KiB  
Review
The Multifaceted Role of LRRK2 in Parkinson’s Disease
by Dong Hwan Ho, Sun Jung Han and Ilhong Son
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 407; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040407 - 17 Apr 2025
Viewed by 213
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a multifunctional protein kinase intricately involved in the pathogeneses of various neurodegenerative diseases, particularly Parkinson’s disease (PD). LRRK2 plays a pivotal role in mitochondrial function and cellular senescence by regulating key processes such as autophagy, oxidative stress, [...] Read more.
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a multifunctional protein kinase intricately involved in the pathogeneses of various neurodegenerative diseases, particularly Parkinson’s disease (PD). LRRK2 plays a pivotal role in mitochondrial function and cellular senescence by regulating key processes such as autophagy, oxidative stress, and protein aggregation. LRRK2 is also associated with ciliogenesis in regulating neuronal development. In addition, LRRK2 has been implicated as a putative mediator in neuroinflammation via promoting the reactivation of microglia and influencing cytokine production, a factor that may have therapeutic implications. Furthermore, mutations in LRRK2 have been found to impact the production of neurotrophic factors in astrocytes, the star-shaped glial cells of the central nervous system, thereby affecting neuronal health and contributing to the pathology of neurodegenerative diseases like PD. The multifaceted roles of LRRK2 in cellular senescence, interaction with LRS, neuroinflammation, the maintenance of mitochondria, and astrocyte function highlight its significance as a therapeutic target for neurodegenerative disorders. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological Functions of LRRK2 and Its Pathogenesis)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 4969 KiB  
Article
Adrenergic Modulation of Cortical Gain and Sensory Processing in the Mouse Visual Cortex
by Ricardo Medina-Coss y León, Elí Lezama, Inmaculada Márquez and Mario Treviño
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 406; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040406 - 17 Apr 2025
Viewed by 178
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Sensory perception is influenced by internal neuronal variability and external noise. Neuromodulators such as norepinephrine (NE) regulate this variability by modulating excitation–inhibition balance, oscillatory dynamics, and interlaminar connectivity. While NE is known to modulate cortical gain, it remains unclear how it shapes [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Sensory perception is influenced by internal neuronal variability and external noise. Neuromodulators such as norepinephrine (NE) regulate this variability by modulating excitation–inhibition balance, oscillatory dynamics, and interlaminar connectivity. While NE is known to modulate cortical gain, it remains unclear how it shapes sensory processing under noisy conditions. This study investigates how adrenergic modulation affects signal-to-noise processing and perceptual decision-making in the primary visual cortex (V1) of mice exposed to varying levels of visual noise. Methods: We performed in vivo local field potential (LFP) recordings from layers 2/3 and 4 of V1 in sedated mice to assess the impact of visual noise and systemic administration of atomoxetine, a NE reuptake inhibitor, on cortical signal processing. In a separate group of freely moving mice, we used a two-alternative forced-choice to evaluate the behavioral effects of systemic and intracortical adrenergic manipulations on visual discrimination. Results: Moderate visual noise enhanced cortical signal processing and visual choices, consistent with stochastic resonance. High noise levels impaired both. Systemic atomoxetine administration flattened the cortical signal-to-noise ratio function, suggesting disrupted gain control. Behaviorally, clonidine impaired accuracy at moderate noise levels, while atomoxetine reduced discrimination performance and increased response variability. Intracortical NE infusions produced similar effects. Conclusions: Our findings demonstrate that NE regulates the balance between signal amplification and noise suppression in a noise- and context-dependent manner. These results extend existing models of neuromodulatory function by linking interlaminar communication and cortical variability to perceptual decision-making. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Perceptual Learning and Cortical Plasticity)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 2634 KiB  
Article
Effects of Whole-Body Vibration on Ankle Control and Walking Speed in Individuals with Incomplete Spinal Cord Injury
by Jasmine M. Hope, Anastasia Zarkou, Cazmon Suri and Edelle C. Field-Fote
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 405; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040405 - 17 Apr 2025
Viewed by 126
Abstract
Background/Objectives: After spinal cord injury (SCI), poor dorsiflexor control and involuntary plantar-flexor contraction impair walking. As whole-body vibration (WBV) improves voluntary muscle activation and modulates reflex excitability, it may improve ankle control. In this study, the dosage effects of WBV on walking speed, [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: After spinal cord injury (SCI), poor dorsiflexor control and involuntary plantar-flexor contraction impair walking. As whole-body vibration (WBV) improves voluntary muscle activation and modulates reflex excitability, it may improve ankle control. In this study, the dosage effects of WBV on walking speed, dorsiflexion, and spinal reflex excitability were examined. Methods: Sixteen people with chronic motor-incomplete SCI participated in this randomized sham-control wash-in study. Two weeks of sham stimulation (wash-in phase) were followed by either 2 weeks of eight repetitions (short bout) or sixteen repetitions of WBV (long bout; intervention phase) per session. Walking speed, ankle angle at mid-swing, and low-frequency depression of the soleus H-reflex were measured before and after the wash-in phase and before and after the intervention phase. Results: A significant dosage effect of WBV was not observed on any of the measures of interest. There were no between-phase or within-phase differences in ankle angle during the swing phase or in low-frequency depression. When dosage groups were pooled together, there was a significant change in walking speed during the intervention phase (mean = 0.04 m/s, standard deviation = 0.06, p = 0.02). There was not a significant correlation between overall change in walking speed and dorsiflexion angle or low-frequency depression during the study. Conclusions: Whole-body vibration did not have a dosage-dependent effect on dorsiflexion during the swing phase or on spinal reflex excitability. Future studies assessing the role of corticospinal tract (CST) descending drive on increased dorsiflexor ability and walking speed are warranted. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neural Mechanisms Underlying Sensorimotor Learning and Plasticity: Novel Advances and Future Perspectives)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 1392 KiB  
Review
The Assessment of the Motor and Non-Motor Aspects of Anosognosia for Hemiplegia: A Historical Review
by Maddalena Beccherle, Sara Bertagnoli and Valentina Moro
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 404; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040404 - 17 Apr 2025
Viewed by 227
Abstract
Anosognosia for hemiplegia is a complex, multifaceted phenomenon. Due to the various different forms in which it manifests and the few tools available to treat it, it can create difficulties for both clinicians and researchers. Since the first definition established by Babinski, a [...] Read more.
Anosognosia for hemiplegia is a complex, multifaceted phenomenon. Due to the various different forms in which it manifests and the few tools available to treat it, it can create difficulties for both clinicians and researchers. Since the first definition established by Babinski, a great deal of research has been performed and has shown that this deficit in motor awareness involves not only motor aspects but also other, non-motor dimensions. These dimensions all need to be taken into consideration during the process of diagnosis, in particular when planning a rehabilitation programme. This article reviews the main instruments currently available for the diagnosis of anosognosia for hemiplegia. After a description of the best tests to assess motor dimensions (such as explicit and implicit anosognosia, emergent awareness and awareness for daily life activities), non-motor dimensions are analysed. The literature on the subject provides ideas and tools for the evaluation of cognitive (i.e., motor imagery), emotional and social (i.e., theory of mind) aspects. Finally, the importance of differential diagnoses in relation to disorders often associated with anosognosia is discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anosognosia and the Determinants of Self-Awareness)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 458 KiB  
Review
A Brief Review of Inherited Neuropathies: A Perspective from Saudi Arabia
by Ahmed K. Bamaga, Anas S. Alyazidi and Feryal K. Alali
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 403; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040403 - 17 Apr 2025
Viewed by 280
Abstract
Inherited neuropathies are a heterogeneous group of disorders that affect the peripheral nervous system, leading to motor, sensory, and autonomic dysfunction. These disorders are classified into various subgroups, including hereditary sensory and motor neuropathies, distal hereditary motor neuropathies, hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathies, [...] Read more.
Inherited neuropathies are a heterogeneous group of disorders that affect the peripheral nervous system, leading to motor, sensory, and autonomic dysfunction. These disorders are classified into various subgroups, including hereditary sensory and motor neuropathies, distal hereditary motor neuropathies, hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathies, and more complex forms. Advances in genetic testing, particularly next-generation sequencing (NGS), have significantly improved the identification of these disorders. Emerging therapies, such as gene therapy, small molecule therapies, and antisense oligonucleotides, offer promising treatment options. However, current treatments remain limited, and their clinical benefits in humans are not yet fully established. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent developments and evolving therapeutic options for hereditary neuropathies, focusing on gene therapy, small molecule therapies, and antisense oligonucleotides. It also highlights the current state of inherited neuropathies in Saudi Arabia, emphasizing the need for national guidelines, patient registries, and collaborative research efforts. By integrating advanced genomic technologies and fostering international collaboration, we can improve the diagnosis, management, and treatment outcomes for patients with inherited neuropathies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diagnosis, Therapy and Rehabilitation in Neuromuscular Diseases)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

7 pages, 166 KiB  
Editorial
Human Brain Responses and Functional Brain Networks Across the Lifespan
by Birgit Mathes and Canan Başar-Eroǧlu
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 402; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040402 - 16 Apr 2025
Viewed by 182
Abstract
Measuring brain responses in real time using electrophysiology enriches our understanding of changes in behavior and cognitive function across the lifespan [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Brain Responses and Functional Brain Networks across the Lifespan)
21 pages, 1890 KiB  
Article
Musical Expertise Reshapes Cross-Domain Semantic Integration: ERP Evidence from Language and Music Processing
by Xing Wang and Tao Zeng
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 401; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040401 - 16 Apr 2025
Viewed by 238
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Both language and music are capable of encoding and communicating semantic concepts, suggesting a potential overlap in neurocognitive mechanisms. Moreover, music training not only enhances domain-specific musical processing but also facilitates cross-domain language processing. However, existing research has predominantly focused on Indo-European [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Both language and music are capable of encoding and communicating semantic concepts, suggesting a potential overlap in neurocognitive mechanisms. Moreover, music training not only enhances domain-specific musical processing but also facilitates cross-domain language processing. However, existing research has predominantly focused on Indo-European languages, with limited evidence from paratactic languages such as Mandarin Chinese. In addition, the impact of variations in musical expertise on these shared processing mechanisms remains unclear, leaving a critical gap in our understanding of the shared neural bases for semantic processing in language and music. This event-related potential (ERP) study investigated whether Chinese sentences and musical chord sequences share semantic processing mechanisms and how musical expertise modulates these mechanisms. Methods: This study recruited 46 college students (22 musicians and 24 non-musicians). Participants read Chinese sentences presented word-by-word visually, while chord sequences were delivered auditorily, with each word temporally aligned to one chord. Sentences included semantically acceptable or unacceptable classifier–noun pairs and chord sequences ended with in-key or out-of-key chords. Participants were instructed to focus on reading sentences while ignoring the concurrent music. ERP signals were recorded, and time-locked to final words to capture neural dynamics during semantic integration. Results: The behavioral results showed that musicians were influenced by musical regularity when reading (acceptable: F(1, 44) = 25.70, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.38; unacceptable: F(1, 44) = 11.45, p = 0.002, ηp2 = 0.21), but such effect was absent in non-musicians (ps > 0.05). ERP results showed that musical semantic processing had a substantial impact on both P200 (F(1, 44) = 9.95, p = 0.003, ηp2 = 0.18), N400 (musicians: F(1, 44) = 15.80, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.26; non-musicians: F(1, 44) = 4.34, p = 0.043, ηp2 = 0.09), and P600 (musicians: F(1, 44) = 5.55, p = 0.023, ηp2 = 0.11; non-musicians: F(1, 44) = 8.68, p = 0.005, ηp2 = 0.17) components. Furthermore, musical expertise exerted modulatory effects during later stages, as evidenced by divergent N400 and P600 latency patterns between musicians and non-musicians. Specifically, ERP amplitudes exhibited opposing trends: musicians showed an enhanced N400 and diminished P600, while non-musicians displayed a weaker N400 and stronger P600. Conclusions: Our findings provide novel evidence that Mandarin Chinese and chord sequences engage partially overlapping neural mechanisms for semantic processing both in the early (P200) and the late (N400 and P600) stages. Crucially, this study is the first to demonstrate that musical expertise may gradually reorganize these shared mechanisms, enabling two initially independent but functionally analogous semantic mechanisms into a domain-general processing system. These insights deepen our understanding of the neurocognitive mechanisms underlying linguistic and musical semantic processing and highlight how expertise shapes the neural architecture of cross-domain mechanisms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Neurolinguistics)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 1040 KiB  
Review
Neuroplasticity and Nervous System Recovery: Cellular Mechanisms, Therapeutic Advances, and Future Prospects
by Ligia Gabriela Tataranu and Radu Eugen Rizea
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 400; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040400 - 15 Apr 2025
Viewed by 468
Abstract
Neuroplasticity, the ability of the nervous system to adapt structurally and functionally in response to environmental interactions and injuries, is a cornerstone of recovery in the central (CNS) and peripheral nervous systems (PNS). This review explores the mechanisms underlying neuroplasticity, focusing on the [...] Read more.
Neuroplasticity, the ability of the nervous system to adapt structurally and functionally in response to environmental interactions and injuries, is a cornerstone of recovery in the central (CNS) and peripheral nervous systems (PNS). This review explores the mechanisms underlying neuroplasticity, focusing on the dynamic roles of cellular and molecular processes in recovery from nervous system injuries. Key cellular players, including Schwann cells, oligodendrocytes, and neural stem cells, are highlighted for their contributions to nerve repair, myelination, and regeneration. Advances in therapeutic interventions, such as electrical stimulation, bioluminescent optogenetics, and innovative nerve grafting techniques, are discussed alongside their potential to enhance recovery and functional outcomes. The molecular underpinnings of plasticity, involving synaptic remodeling, homeostatic mechanisms, and activity-dependent regulation of gene expression, are elucidated to illustrate their role in learning, memory, and injury repair. Integrating emerging technologies and therapeutic approaches with a foundational understanding of neuroplasticity offers a pathway toward more effective strategies for restoring nervous system functionality after injury. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue How to Rewire the Brain—Neuroplasticity)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 2191 KiB  
Article
Machine Learning-Based Classification of Anterior Circulation Cerebral Infarction Using Computational Fluid Dynamics and CT Perfusion Metrics
by Xulong Yin, Yusheng Zhao, Fuping Huang, Hui Wang and Qi Fang
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 399; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040399 - 15 Apr 2025
Viewed by 167
Abstract
Background: Intracranial atherosclerotic stenosis (ICAS) is a leading cause of ischemic stroke, particularly in the anterior circulation. Understanding the underlying stroke mechanisms is essential for guiding personalized treatment strategies. This study proposes an integrated framework that combines CT perfusion imaging, vascular anatomical features, [...] Read more.
Background: Intracranial atherosclerotic stenosis (ICAS) is a leading cause of ischemic stroke, particularly in the anterior circulation. Understanding the underlying stroke mechanisms is essential for guiding personalized treatment strategies. This study proposes an integrated framework that combines CT perfusion imaging, vascular anatomical features, computational fluid dynamics (CFD), and machine learning to classify stroke mechanisms based on the Chinese Ischemic Stroke Subclassification (CISS) system. Methods: A retrospective analysis was conducted on 118 patients with intracranial atherosclerotic stenosis. Key indicators were selected using one-way ANOVA with nested cross-validation and visualized through correlation heatmaps. Optimal thresholds were identified using decision trees. The classification performance of six machine learning models was evaluated using ROC and PR curves. Results: Time to Maximum (Tmax) > 4.0 s, wall shear stress ratio (WSSR), pressure ratio, and percent area stenosis were identified as the most predictive indicators. Thresholds such as Tmax > 4.0 s = 134.0 mL and WSSR = 86.51 effectively distinguished stroke subtypes. The Logistic Regression model demonstrated the best performance (AUC = 0.91, AP = 0.85), followed by Naive Bayes models. Conclusions: This multimodal approach effectively differentiates stroke mechanisms in anterior circulation ICAS and holds promise for supporting more precise diagnosis and personalized treatment in clinical practice. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Computational Neuroscience and Neuroinformatics)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 1558 KiB  
Article
Topographical Organization of Prefrontal Cortex and Adjacent Areas Projections to the Dorsomedial Caudate–Putamen in Rats: A Retrograde Tracing Study
by Christopher L. Robison, Theodore Kazan, Rikki L. A. Miller, Tyler Allen, Jason S. Hensley and Sergios Charntikov
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 398; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040398 - 15 Apr 2025
Viewed by 147
Abstract
The dorsomedial caudate–putamen (dmCPu), a key input structure of the basal ganglia, plays a crucial role in goal-directed behaviors and the transition to habits. The functional specialization of the dmCPu along its anteroposterior axis suggests that distinct prefrontal cortex (PFC) subregions may differentially [...] Read more.
The dorsomedial caudate–putamen (dmCPu), a key input structure of the basal ganglia, plays a crucial role in goal-directed behaviors and the transition to habits. The functional specialization of the dmCPu along its anteroposterior axis suggests that distinct prefrontal cortex (PFC) subregions may differentially contribute to these processes. However, the precise topographical organization of PFC and adjacent areas projections to the anterior and posterior dmCPu remains poorly understood. We employed retrograde tracing using Fluoro-Gold to map the projections from PFC subregions and adjacent areas to the anterior and posterior dmCPu in male Sprague Dawley rats. Histological verification and immunohistochemical labeling were conducted to confirm injection sites and neuronal labeling. Quantitative analyses were performed to assess the effects of injection site placement (anterior vs. posterior dmCPu), laterality (ipsilateral vs. contralateral), and cortical subregion on projection density. The posterior dmCPu received significantly higher projection densities than the anterior dmCPu, with a pronounced ipsilateral dominance across all cortical subregions. Among the subregions examined, the cingulate cortex exhibited the highest number of labeled neurons projecting to the dmCPu, with distinct patterns of connectivity between anterior and posterior injection sites. Notably, motor and somatosensory cortical projections were more prominent in the posterior dmCPu, whereas cingulate projections demonstrated robust anteroposterior and lateralized differences. These findings provide a comprehensive map of the topographical organization of cortical inputs to the dmCPu, highlighting differential connectivity patterns that may underlie distinct functional roles in goal-directed and habitual behaviors. This work advances our understanding of corticostriatal circuits and their relevance to adaptive behaviors and neuropsychiatric disorders. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress, Resilience and Susceptibility)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 4828 KiB  
Article
Effects of Different Individuals and Verbal Tones on Neural Networks in the Brain of Children with Cerebral Palsy
by Ryosuke Yamauchi, Hiroki Ito, Ken Kitai, Kohei Okuyama, Osamu Katayama, Kiichiro Morita, Shin Murata and Takayuki Kodama
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 397; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040397 - 15 Apr 2025
Viewed by 217
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Motivation is a key factor for improving motor function and cognitive control in patients. Motivation for rehabilitation is influenced by the relationship between the therapist and patient, wherein appropriate voice encouragement is necessary to increase motivation. Therefore, we examined the differences [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Motivation is a key factor for improving motor function and cognitive control in patients. Motivation for rehabilitation is influenced by the relationship between the therapist and patient, wherein appropriate voice encouragement is necessary to increase motivation. Therefore, we examined the differences between mothers and other individuals, such as physical therapists (PTs), in their verbal interactions with children with cerebral palsy who have poor communication abilities, as well as the neurological and physiological effects of variations in the tone of their speech. Methods: The three participants were children with cerebral palsy (Participant A: boy, 3 years; Participant B: girl, 7 years; Participant C: girl, 9 years). Participants’ mothers and the assigned PTs were asked to speak under three conditions. During this, the brain activity of the participants was measured using a 19-channel electroencephalogram. The results were further analyzed using Independent Component Analysis frequency analysis with exact Low-Resolution Brain Electromagnetic Tomography, allowing for the identification and visualization of neural activity in three-dimensional brain functional networks. Results: The results of the ICA frequency analysis for each participant revealed distinct patterns of brain activity in response to verbal encouragement from the mother and PT, with differences observed across the theta, alpha, and beta frequency bands. Conclusions: Our study suggests that the children were attentive to their mothers’ inquiries and focused on their internal experiences. Furthermore, it was indicated that when addressed by the PT, the participants found it easier to grasp the meanings and intentions of the words. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Application of EEG in Neurorehabilitation)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

41 pages, 4809 KiB  
Review
Neurocomputational Mechanisms of Sense of Agency: Literature Review for Integrating Predictive Coding and Adaptive Control in Human–Machine Interfaces
by Anirban Dutta
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 396; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040396 - 14 Apr 2025
Viewed by 245
Abstract
Background: The sense of agency (SoA)—the subjective experience of controlling one’s own actions and their consequences—is a fundamental aspect of human cognition, volition, and motor control. Understanding how the SoA arises and is disrupted in neuropsychiatric disorders has significant implications for human–machine interface [...] Read more.
Background: The sense of agency (SoA)—the subjective experience of controlling one’s own actions and their consequences—is a fundamental aspect of human cognition, volition, and motor control. Understanding how the SoA arises and is disrupted in neuropsychiatric disorders has significant implications for human–machine interface (HMI) design for neurorehabilitation. Traditional cognitive models of agency often fail to capture its full complexity, especially in dynamic and uncertain environments. Objective: This review synthesizes computational models—particularly predictive coding, Bayesian inference, and optimal control theories—to provide a unified framework for understanding the SoA in both healthy and dysfunctional brains. It aims to demonstrate how these models can inform the design of adaptive HMIs and therapeutic tools by aligning with the brain’s own inference and control mechanisms. Methods: I reviewed the foundational and contemporary literature on predictive coding, Kalman filtering, the Linear–Quadratic–Gaussian (LQG) control framework, and active inference. I explored their integration with neurophysiological mechanisms, focusing on the somato-cognitive action network (SCAN) and its role in sensorimotor integration, intention encoding, and the judgment of agency. Case studies, simulations, and XR-based rehabilitation paradigms using robotic haptics were used to illustrate theoretical concepts. Results: The SoA emerges from hierarchical inference processes that combine top–down motor intentions with bottom–up sensory feedback. Predictive coding frameworks, especially when implemented via Kalman filters and LQG control, provide a mechanistic basis for modeling motor learning, error correction, and adaptive control. Disruptions in these inference processes underlie symptoms in disorders such as functional movement disorder. XR-based interventions using robotic interfaces can restore the SoA by modulating sensory precision and motor predictions through adaptive feedback and suggestion. Computer simulations demonstrate how internal models, and hypnotic suggestions influence state estimation, motor execution, and the recovery of agency. Conclusions: Predictive coding and active inference offer a powerful computational framework for understanding and enhancing the SoA in health and disease. The SCAN system serves as a neural hub for integrating motor plans with cognitive and affective processes. Future work should explore the real-time modulation of agency via biofeedback, simulation, and SCAN-targeted non-invasive brain stimulation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Movement Generation: Sensorimotor Processes)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 4320 KiB  
Article
Long-Term Fish Oil Supplementation Attenuates Spike Wave Discharges in the Amygdala of Adult Rats with Early-Life Febrile Seizures
by Leopoldo Eduardo Flores-Mancilla, Marisela Hernández-González, Miguel Ángel Guevara-Pérez, Herlinda Bonilla-Jaime, Noemí Gaytán-Pacheco, Claudia Araceli Reyes-Estrada and Fermín Paul Pacheco-Moisés
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 395; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040395 - 14 Apr 2025
Viewed by 298
Abstract
Background and Objectives: Febrile seizures (FS) are neuronal disturbances frequently associated with abnormal electroencephalographic activity (EEG) as spike-wave discharges (SWDs). Fish oil (FO) has high amounts of omega-3 fatty acids (θ-3), and its effects on FS alterations are poorly understood. The aim of [...] Read more.
Background and Objectives: Febrile seizures (FS) are neuronal disturbances frequently associated with abnormal electroencephalographic activity (EEG) as spike-wave discharges (SWDs). Fish oil (FO) has high amounts of omega-3 fatty acids (θ-3), and its effects on FS alterations are poorly understood. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of long-term FO supplementation on the EEG of the amygdala of adult male rats with early-life FS. Materials and Methods: Progenitor female Wistar rats, from puberty to gestation and delivery, were fed daily with a commercial diet supplemented with either fish oil (FO), palm oil (PO), or deionized water (CTRL). After parturition, male pups were exposed for 30 min to hyperthermia (HP) and then returned to their dams. After weaning, pups were fed a commercial diet and the respective treatments up to 155 days of age when electrodes were implanted in the amygdala. Results: During early life HP, the PO and CTRL groups reached maximal core temperature (CT) in comparison with the FO group. Furthermore, the FO group only has fewer myoclonus and long latency to adopt an uncontrolled posture. At an adult age, the FO group with early-life FS scored shorter periods of SWDs in amygdala EEG but without seizures and presented minor values of absolute power than the PO and CTRL groups. Conclusions: In adult rats, the long-term supplementation of FO minimizes the deleterious behavioral effects caused by early-life FS and decreases the occurrence and amplitude of SWDs in the EEG of the amygdala. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Basic and Clinical Approaches in Neurodegenerative Diseases: Diagnostics and Therapeutics)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 1025 KiB  
Article
Participation and Activity Inventory for Children and Youth (PAI-CY): Translation and Cultural Adaptation to European Portuguese
by Ana Isabel Ferreira, Maria Raquel Santana, Cláudia Quaresma and Carla Quintão
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(4), 394; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15040394 - 13 Apr 2025
Viewed by 293
Abstract
Introduction: Visual skills have a significant impact on an infant’s development and participation. In Portugal, although the public health system is organized to support citizens with visual impairment, it lacks translated and culturally adapted assessment tools. Knowing that a comprehensive assessment is crucial [...] Read more.
Introduction: Visual skills have a significant impact on an infant’s development and participation. In Portugal, although the public health system is organized to support citizens with visual impairment, it lacks translated and culturally adapted assessment tools. Knowing that a comprehensive assessment is crucial for early diagnosis and that it improves an infant’s participation in daily life, the aim of the present article is to present the translation and cultural adaptation of the Participation and Activity Inventory for Children and Youth (0–2 years) into European Portuguese. Methods: To achieve the objective, methodological guidelines were followed, and six different stages were implemented, including translation, synthesis, back translation, revision by an expert committee, pretesting in a representative sample, and submission and appraisal of all written reports by developers to the author’s tool. The whole process was previously approved by an Ethics Committee. Results: A Portuguese version of the Participation and Activity Inventory for Children and Youth (0–2 years) was obtained based on the English version of PAI-CY (0–2 years) with the participation of four independent translators, five experts, and twenty parents filling out the pretest version. The results of the expert committee showed that 99.40% were in favor of the proposed translation. Additionally, the inventory pretesting reveals a clarity PAI-CY validity index of 1, a relevance PAI-CY validity index of 0.98, and a global validity index of 0.99. Conclusions: The Participation and Activity Inventory for Children and Youth (0–2 years) has now been translated and culturally adapted into European Portuguese, guaranteeing its content validity. To use the tool in Portugal with certainty it is necessary to implement the tool validation. The process to investigate the psychometric properties of the questionnaire is being prepared. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Neuropsychology)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Show export options expand_more Show export options expand_less
Select all
Export citation of selected articles as:
 
Displaying articles 1-98
Previous Issue
Next Issue
Back to TopTop