Biosensors

17 pages, 3950 KB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Flexible Microneedle Array Electrode with a High Signal-to-Noise Ratio for Surface Bioelectrical Signal Recording

by Bo Jiang, Ye Wang, Ruiqing Li, Yan Zhou, Lihua Ma, Dingjie Suo and Guangying Pei

Biosensors 2026, 16(2), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16020108 (registering DOI) - 7 Feb 2026

Abstract

Microneedle array (MNA) electrodes have garnered significant attention for their capacity to record high-fidelity surface bioelectrical signals over extended periods and convenience. However, accuracy limitations in 3D-printed metal MNA electrodes, particularly concerning surface roughness and insufficient tip sharpness, have been reported. Additionally, the [...] Read more.

Microneedle array (MNA) electrodes have garnered significant attention for their capacity to record high-fidelity surface bioelectrical signals over extended periods and convenience. However, accuracy limitations in 3D-printed metal MNA electrodes, particularly concerning surface roughness and insufficient tip sharpness, have been reported. Additionally, the prevalent use of nonporous metal substrates often results in poor flexibility. This study proposes a novel MNA electrode featuring a lightweight flexible substrate and sharp, smooth microneedles. Utilizing micron-level metal 3D printing with 316L stainless steel, we fabricated the electrodes in a single step. We evaluated the MNA electrode-skin interface impedance via frequency sweep and assessed mechanical properties using porcine skin, followed by the collection and analysis of bioelectrical signals. The results demonstrate that the contact impedance of the MNA electrode is comparable to that of standard gold cup electrodes, with validated flexibility and strength. Furthermore, the MNA electrodes achieved a high signal-to-noise ratio and minimal motion artifacts during recording, thereby enhancing both comfort and signal quality. The efficient production process facilitates the broader application of metal MNA electrodes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Microneedle Array Electrodes in Biomedicine)

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44 pages, 1412 KB

Open AccessReview

Electrochemical (Bio)Sensors Based on Nanotechnologies for the Detection of Important Biomolecules in Plants and Plant-Related Samples: The Future of Smart and Precision Agriculture

by Ioana Silvia Hosu, Radu-Claudiu Fierăscu and Irina Fierăscu

Biosensors 2026, 16(2), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16020107 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Considering the present environmental concerns, nanomaterial-based methods should be applied to achieve the bioeconomic sustainability initiatives and climate change mitigation. Plants and plant extracts are one of the most underused biomass and bioactive ingredients resources. Moreover, nowadays crop loss is one of the [...] Read more.

Considering the present environmental concerns, nanomaterial-based methods should be applied to achieve the bioeconomic sustainability initiatives and climate change mitigation. Plants and plant extracts are one of the most underused biomass and bioactive ingredients resources. Moreover, nowadays crop loss is one of the main problems that the world faces, together with the depletion of natural resources, increasing population and limited arable land, leading to increased food scarcity and demand. To correctly attribute/use plant-based bioresources or to rapidly decide which farming operations should be performed before crop loss, we should be able to properly characterize plants or plant-based resources by the desired useful characteristics, such as (bio)chemical characteristics, rather than simply observing physical traits of plants (because, when these traits become visible, it may be too late for crop loss mitigation). Plant crops could be optimized, for example, using electrochemical methods that assess the nutrient uptake and nutrient use efficiency (NUE) or the oxidative stress burst encountered before crop loss, in order to improve crop yields and crop quality. Other different important analytes (such as hormones, pathogens, metabolites, etc.) or plant characteristics (such as genus, species, phylogenetic analysis, etc.) can be evaluated with these electrochemical sensors and methods. In the present review, we focus on the application of nanomaterials/nanotechnologies for the development of fast, accurate, accessible, cost-effective, sensitive and selective analytical electrochemical methods for the detection of different relevant biomolecules in plants or plant-related samples (plant extracts, plant cells, plant tissues, and/or plant-derived natural drinks/foods, as well as entire plants/plant parts), both in vivo vs. ex vivo and in situ vs. ex situ. This review systematically presents and critically discusses the outcomes of current electrochemical methods (both applied in the lab or as wearable/implantable sensors) and the future perspectives of these nanotechnology-based sensors, with an accent on wearable sensors for smart and precision agriculture, as real-world sensing technologies with significant practical impact. The novelty of this article is the abundance of electrochemical analytical parameters gathered and discussed, for such a large number of analyte categories. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical (Bio)Sensors as Promising Analytical Tools in the Analysis of Soils, Plants and Environmental Monitoring)

15 pages, 1780 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rapid Forensic DNA Profiling via Real-Time Recombinase Polymerase Amplification of InDel Markers

by Liesl De Keyzer, Sonja Škevin, Koen Deserranno, Dieter Deforce and Filip Van Nieuwerburgh

Biosensors 2026, 16(2), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16020106 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Forensic DNA profiling commonly relies on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification followed by capillary electrophoresis (CE) or massively parallel sequencing (MPS), which requires expensive, laboratory-based equipment that depends on a stable power supply and is unsuitable for field applications. Here, we present a [...] Read more.

Forensic DNA profiling commonly relies on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification followed by capillary electrophoresis (CE) or massively parallel sequencing (MPS), which requires expensive, laboratory-based equipment that depends on a stable power supply and is unsuitable for field applications. Here, we present a proof-of-concept assay that uses recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) combined with exo probe detection for rapid, isothermal genotyping of insertion–deletion (InDel) markers. To the best of our knowledge, this study represents the first demonstration of forensic DNA typing using RPA coupled with exo probes. The reaction proceeds at 39 °C and combines amplification and detection in a single 20 min step. Thirteen DNA samples were genotyped in triplicate across eight InDel loci using allele-specific fluorescent probes. Genotypes were derived from differential endpoint fluorescence between matched and mismatched probes. Compared with benchmark genotyping, 97.07% of genotypes (n = 307) were correct at 1 ng DNA input. Accurate profiles were reliably obtained for DNA inputs as low as 250 pg, and partial profiles were still detectable at 31 pg. The results demonstrate that RPA-based InDel genotyping is fast, sensitive, and reproducible. With further optimization, such as refined probe design and selection of robust loci, the assay has clear potential to achieve complete accuracy and to be integrated into portable lab-on-a-chip platforms for rapid, field-deployable forensic identification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensor and Bioelectronic Devices)

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12 pages, 6121 KB

Open AccessArticle

Upconversion Nanoparticle-Based Luminescence DNA Sensor on Porous Silicon Substrate

by Yangzhi Zhang, Xingyu Wang, Yajun Liu, Zhenhong Jia, Ziyi Yang, Xiaohui Huang and Jiajia Wang

Biosensors 2026, 16(2), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16020105 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Rare-earth-doped upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) exhibit upconversion luminescence upon excitation with infrared light and have been extensively utilized in the field of biosensing. In this study, a UCNPs-based biosensor with porous silicon (PSi) as the substrate was developed for the first time, enabling the [...] Read more.

Rare-earth-doped upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) exhibit upconversion luminescence upon excitation with infrared light and have been extensively utilized in the field of biosensing. In this study, a UCNPs-based biosensor with porous silicon (PSi) as the substrate was developed for the first time, enabling the detection of target DNA molecule concentration. First, a PSi substrate was prepared via electrochemical etching and subsequently functionalized to enable target DNA molecules to immobilize onto the inner walls of the PSi substrate’s pores. Then, UCNPs-labeled probe DNA molecules hybridized with the target DNA molecules, enabling indirect attachment of UCNPs to the inner walls of the PSi substrate. Subsequently, the sample surface is irradiated with a 980 nm laser. Upconversion fluorescence images of the sample, both before and after the biological reaction, are captured using an image acquisition device. Image processing software is employed to calculate the average change in grayscale values, enabling the determination of the molecular concentration of target DNA. The limit of detection (LOD) of this method for target DNA molecular concentration is 86 pM, demonstrating that it enables low-cost, highly sensitive, rapid, and convenient biological detection of target DNA molecules. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photonics for Bioapplications: Sensors and Technology—2nd Edition)

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Graphical abstract

29 pages, 1087 KB

Open AccessReview

Recent Advances in Microfluidic Chip Technology for Laboratory Medicine: Innovations and Artificial Intelligence Integration

by Hong Cai, Dongxia Wang, Yiqun Zhao and Chunhui Yang

Biosensors 2026, 16(2), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16020104 - 5 Feb 2026

Abstract

Microfluidic chip technologies, also known as lab-on-a-chip systems, have profoundly transformed laboratory medicine by enabling the miniaturization, automation, and rapid processing of complex diagnostic assays using minimal sample volumes. Recent advances in chip design, fabrication methods—including 3D printing, modular and flexible substrates—and biosensor [...] Read more.

Microfluidic chip technologies, also known as lab-on-a-chip systems, have profoundly transformed laboratory medicine by enabling the miniaturization, automation, and rapid processing of complex diagnostic assays using minimal sample volumes. Recent advances in chip design, fabrication methods—including 3D printing, modular and flexible substrates—and biosensor integration have significantly enhanced the performance, sensitivity, and clinical applicability of these devices. Integration of advanced biosensors allows for real-time detection of circulating tumor cells, nucleic acids, and exosomes, supporting innovative applications in cancer diagnostics, infectious disease detection, point-of-care testing (POCT), personalized medicine, and therapeutic monitoring. Notably, the convergence of microfluidics with artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning has amplified device automation, reliability, and analytical power, resulting in “smart” diagnostic platforms capable of self-optimization, automated analysis, and clinical decision support. Emerging applications in fields such as neuroscience diagnostics and microbiome profiling further highlight the broad potential of microfluidic technology. Here, we present findings from a comprehensive review of recent innovations in microfluidic chip design and fabrication, advances in biosensor and AI integration, and their clinical applications in laboratory medicine. We also discuss current challenges in manufacturing, clinical validation, and system integration, as well as future directions for translating next-generation microfluidic technologies into routine clinical and public health practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors and Healthcare)

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13 pages, 5029 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Simple and Visual Colorimetric Aptasensor Based on AuNPs for the Rapid Detection of Sulfamethazine in Environmental Samples

by Luwei Chai, Yarong Wang, Shuang Jiang, Xue Wang, Yong Xie and Tao Le

Biosensors 2026, 16(2), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16020103 - 5 Feb 2026

Abstract

Sulfamethazine (SMZ) is widely used in livestock production, and its residues can enter water and soil environments, posing potential risks to human health and ecosystems. This study focuses on environmental samples and constructs an AuNP-based colorimetric aptasensor using the SMZ1S aptamer for the [...] Read more.

Sulfamethazine (SMZ) is widely used in livestock production, and its residues can enter water and soil environments, posing potential risks to human health and ecosystems. This study focuses on environmental samples and constructs an AuNP-based colorimetric aptasensor using the SMZ1S aptamer for the rapid visual detection of SMZ. Under optimized conditions, the aptasensor showed a wide linear range from 0.05 to 0.4 µg/mL and a limit of detection of 0.039 µg/mL. Molecular dynamics simulations have demonstrated that the aptamer’s binding to SMZ is stable, providing a theoretical basis for the high selectivity of the aptasensor. Spike-and-recovery experiments yielded recoveries of 87.3–105.5%, 88.6–102.8%, and 87.5–103.4% for SMZ in lake water, tap water, and soil samples, respectively, with relative standard deviations of 5.9–8.3%, 8.0–10.6%, and 4.8–9.6%, showing good agreement with high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) results (R² ≥ 0.981). Overall, the proposed aptasensor provides a simple and effective approach for rapid detection of SMZ in environmental samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aptamer-Based Sensing: Designs and Applications)

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17 pages, 2768 KB

Open AccessArticle

Tactile-Sensation Imaging System for Assessing Material Inclusions in Breast Tumor Detection

by Tahsin Nairuz and Jong-Ha Lee

Biosensors 2026, 16(2), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16020102 - 4 Feb 2026

Abstract

Accurate identification and characterization of subcutaneous tumors are essential for improving breast tumor detection and treatment. This study introduces an innovative Tactile-Sensation Imaging System (TSIS) designed, implemented, and tested to detect and characterize subcutaneous inclusions simulating breast tumors. The system employs a multilayered [...] Read more.

Accurate identification and characterization of subcutaneous tumors are essential for improving breast tumor detection and treatment. This study introduces an innovative Tactile-Sensation Imaging System (TSIS) designed, implemented, and tested to detect and characterize subcutaneous inclusions simulating breast tumors. The system employs a multilayered polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) optical waveguide that mimics the tactile structure of the human fingertip. By introducing light at a critical angle, the design enables continuous total internal reflection (TIR) within the flexible, transparent waveguide. When external pressure is applied, deformation of the contact area causes light scattering, which is recorded using a high-definition camera and processed as tactile images. Analysis of these images allows estimation of inclusion characteristics such as size, depth, and mechanical properties, including Young’s modulus. Analytical modeling and numerical simulations validated the optical performance of the waveguide, while experimental evaluations using realistic tissue phantoms confirmed the system’s ability to accurately detect and quantify embedded inclusions. The results demonstrated reliable estimations of inclusion dimensions, depths, and stiffness, verifying the system’s sensitivity and precision. The TSIS offers a noninvasive, portable, and cost-efficient solution for quantitative breast tumor assessment, bridging the gap between manual palpation and advanced imaging, with future enhancements aimed at improving resolution and diagnostic accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Optical and Photonic Biosensors)

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15 pages, 4766 KB

Open AccessArticle

Electrochemical/Colorimetric Dual-Mode Aptasensor Based on CuZr-MOF and Fe₃O₄@ZIF-8 for Detection of Malathion in Vegetables

by Kaili Liu, Jiwei Dong, Youkai Wang, Jiashuai Sun, Peisen Li, Yemin Guo and Xia Sun

Biosensors 2026, 16(2), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16020101 - 4 Feb 2026

Abstract

In on-site rapid detection, the electrochemical method boasts high sensitivity and rapid response capabilities, while the colorimetric method can provide intuitive visual readings suitable for on-site screening. Therefore, this study developed an innovative dual-mode electrochemical/colorimetric aptasensor for the accurate detection of malathion (MAL) [...] Read more.

In on-site rapid detection, the electrochemical method boasts high sensitivity and rapid response capabilities, while the colorimetric method can provide intuitive visual readings suitable for on-site screening. Therefore, this study developed an innovative dual-mode electrochemical/colorimetric aptasensor for the accurate detection of malathion (MAL) in vegetables. The sensor combines magnetic Fe₃O₄@ZIF-8-DNA composites and CuZr-MOF-cDNA probes, enabling simultaneous detection of the target through electrochemical reactions and colorimetric changes. The introduction of CuZr-MOF not only enhances the sensor’s conductivity but also significantly amplifies the electrochemical signal through its catalytic properties. The magnetic Fe₃O₄@ZIF-8-DNA composite facilitates solid–liquid separation under an external magnetic field. When the target MAL is present, the aptamer binds to the target, causing the CuZr-MOF-cDNA probes to release from the composite, altering the number of free probes in the supernatant and generating varying intensities of colorimetric signals. Meanwhile, the MAL captured in the precipitate by the aptamer is quantitatively detected through electrochemical methods. Experimental results demonstrate that as the target concentration increases, the colorimetric signal intensifies while the electrochemical signal weakens, showing a good linear relationship between the two. The aptasensor’s limit of detection (LOD) for colorimetric and electrochemical modes was 1.57 × 10⁻¹¹ M and 4.76 × 10⁻¹¹ M, respectively, with recoveries ranging from 87.71% to 107.68% and relative standard deviations between 3.23% and 10.75%. This method exhibits high sensitivity, excellent selectivity, and strong reliability, providing a novel technique for the accurate quantification of MAL in vegetables, particularly suited for on-site rapid detection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aptamer-Based Sensing: Designs and Applications)

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16 pages, 6393 KB

Open AccessArticle

Simplified Sample Preparation and Lateral Flow Immunoassay for the Detection of Plant Viruses

by Robert Tannenberg, Georg Tscheuschner, Christopher Raab, Sabine Flemig, Sarah Döring, Marco Ponader, Melinda Thurmann, Martin Paul and Michael G. Weller

Biosensors 2026, 16(2), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16020100 - 4 Feb 2026

Abstract

Lateral flow immunoassays (LFAs) are widely used for on-site testing; however, their use for the rapid detection of plant viruses in the field is often limited by inconvenient sample preparation. Here, we present a new sampling method and a simplified dipstick LFA format [...] Read more.

Lateral flow immunoassays (LFAs) are widely used for on-site testing; however, their use for the rapid detection of plant viruses in the field is often limited by inconvenient sample preparation. Here, we present a new sampling method and a simplified dipstick LFA format for the detection and monitoring of cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV) as a model plant pathogen. The assay employs a monoclonal mouse antibody for capture and a poly-clonal rabbit antibody conjugated to 80 nm gold nanoparticles for detection. Conventional sample and conjugate pads are omitted, allowing the test strips to be dipped directly into wells containing plant extract and antibody–gold conjugate. No plastic casing was required, which could lead to a reduction in waste. It was shown that CCMV concentrations as low as 3.5 µg/L or 350 pg per sample could be reliably detected in 15 min. Specificity tests confirmed that other plant viruses, cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) and tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), did not produce false-positive results. In addition, we describe a new method for on-site sampling using a manual punch and a syringe equipped with a frit. This step combines grinding the sample, extraction, filtration, and reconstitution and mixing of the antibody-gold conjugate, enabling the analysis of punched leaf disks without laboratory equipment. When applied to CCMV-infected cowpea plants, the assay revealed systemic infection before visual symptoms became apparent. This work demonstrates that simplified LFAs combined with innovative sampling techniques can provide sensitive, specific, and rapid diagnostics for crop monitoring and support early intervention strategies in agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Paper in Biosensor and Bioelectronic Devices 2025)

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10 pages, 1034 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Highly Sensitive Electrochemiluminescence Analysis of miRNA-107 Using AIE-Active Polymer Dots as Emitters

by Zhi-Hong Xu, Xin Weng, Ruo-Mei Lin, Hui Tong, Yang Guo, Li-Shuang Yu, Hang Gao and Qin Xu

Biosensors 2026, 16(2), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16020099 - 4 Feb 2026

Abstract

The ultrasensitive detection of microRNA-17 (miRNA-107) is required for clinical diagnosis. In this work, an aggregation-induced electrochemiluminescence (AIECL) sensor was developed for the quantification of miRNA-107, in which AIECL-active polymer dots (Pdots) were characterized by transmission electron microscopy, ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy, and cyclic voltammetry [...] Read more.

The ultrasensitive detection of microRNA-17 (miRNA-107) is required for clinical diagnosis. In this work, an aggregation-induced electrochemiluminescence (AIECL) sensor was developed for the quantification of miRNA-107, in which AIECL-active polymer dots (Pdots) were characterized by transmission electron microscopy, ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy, and cyclic voltammetry and used as ECL emitters. Black hole quencher-labeled hairpin DNA (HP-BHQ) was modified on the Pdot surfaces, resulting in the ECL signal of the Pdots being in the “off” state due to the resonant energy transfer (RET) between the BHQ and Pdots. In the presence of miRNA-107, HP-BHQ opened through RNA-DNA hybridization. Subsequently, the introduced duplex-specific nuclease (DSN) facilitated the cleavage of DNA in the RNA–DNA hybrid chain and led to the detachment of HP-BHQ from the electrode surface. The ECL signal of the Pdots recovered, i.e., to the “on” state. The variation in the ECL signal was related to the concentration of the target miRNA-107. As a result, the AIECL biosensor exhibited a wide linear response to miRNA-107 concentrations ranging from 1.0 fM to 10.0 pM, and a low detection limit of 0.82 fM. This work provides a novel platform for the sensitive analysis of miRNA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical Biosensors for Rapid and Sensitive Detection)

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Graphical abstract

35 pages, 2462 KB

Open AccessReview

Label-Free Electrochemical Biosensors: An Updated Perspective Focused on Genosensing, Multiplexing, and Commercial Potential

by Jefferson H. S. Carvalho, Marcus A. S. Catai, Lucas V. Bertolim, Rafaela C. Freitas, Jessica R. Camargo, Laís C. Brazaca and Bruno C. Janegitz

Biosensors 2026, 16(2), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16020098 - 4 Feb 2026

Abstract

The increasing impact of infectious, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases has intensified the demand for early and decentralized diagnostics. Label-free electrochemical biosensors are promising candidates, offering high sensitivity, low reagent consumption and miniaturizable, low-cost architectures for point-of-care (PoC) testing. This review summarizes advances in [...] Read more.

The increasing impact of infectious, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases has intensified the demand for early and decentralized diagnostics. Label-free electrochemical biosensors are promising candidates, offering high sensitivity, low reagent consumption and miniaturizable, low-cost architectures for point-of-care (PoC) testing. This review summarizes advances in immobilization strategies, recognition elements such as DNA, antibodies, aptamers, and molecularly imprinted polymers, as well as electrode platforms including glassy carbon, screen-printed, and 3D-printed systems, with an emphasis on DNA biosensors, multiplexed configurations, and applications to disease biomarkers. Beyond analytical performance, we critically examine the barriers that keep most devices at the proof-of-concept stage, including bioreceptor stability and immobilization, limited validation in real samples, reliance on conventional materials, challenges in scalable manufacturing, transport, and storage, and the absence of fully integrated PoC systems. Finally, we discuss significant advances in sensitivity, reproducibility, and application to real samples, but note that translation to real-world use and commercialization remains limited. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Label-Free Electrochemical Biosensing)

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37 pages, 975 KB

Open AccessReview

Wearable Biosensing and Machine Learning for Data-Driven Training and Coaching Support

by Rubén Madrigal-Cerezo, Natalia Domínguez-Sanz and Alexandra Martín-Rodríguez

Biosensors 2026, 16(2), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16020097 - 4 Feb 2026

Abstract

Background: Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) are increasingly integrated into sport and exercise through wearable biosensing systems that enable continuous monitoring and data-driven training adaptation. However, their practical value for coaching depends on the validity of biosensor data, the robustness of [...] Read more.

Background: Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) are increasingly integrated into sport and exercise through wearable biosensing systems that enable continuous monitoring and data-driven training adaptation. However, their practical value for coaching depends on the validity of biosensor data, the robustness of analytical models, and the conditions under which these systems have been empirically evaluated. Methods: A structured narrative review was conducted using Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar (2010–2026), synthesising empirical and applied evidence on wearable biosensing, signal processing, and ML-based adaptive training systems. To enhance transparency, an evidence map of core empirical studies was constructed, summarising sensing modalities, cohort sizes, experimental settings (laboratory vs. field), model types, evaluation protocols, and key outcomes. Results: Evidence from field and laboratory studies indicates that wearable biosensors can reliably capture physiological (e.g., heart rate variability), biomechanical (e.g., inertial and electromyographic signals), and biochemical (e.g., sweat lactate and electrolytes) markers relevant to training load, fatigue, and recovery, provided that signal quality control and calibration procedures are applied. ML models trained on these data can support training adaptation and recovery estimation, with improved performance over traditional workload metrics in endurance, strength, and team-sport contexts when evaluated using athlete-wise or longitudinal validation schemes. Nevertheless, the evidence map also highlights recurring limitations, including sensitivity to motion artefacts, inter-session variability, distribution shift between laboratory and field settings, and overconfident predictions when contextual or psychosocial inputs are absent. Conclusions: Current empirical evidence supports the use of AI-driven biosensor systems as decision-support tools for monitoring and adaptive training, but not as autonomous coaching agents. Their effectiveness is bounded by sensor reliability, appropriate validation protocols, and human oversight. The most defensible model emerging from the evidence is human–AI collaboration, in which ML enhances precision and consistency in data interpretation, while coaches retain responsibility for contextual judgement, ethical decision-making, and athlete-centred care. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Sensors for Precise Exercise Monitoring and Analysis)

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13 pages, 679 KB

Open AccessPerspective

Overcoming HRP/TMB/H₂O₂ Limitations in LFIAs Using Cerium Oxide Nanozymes with Built-In Peroxidase Activity

by John HT Luong

Biosensors 2026, 16(2), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16020096 - 3 Feb 2026

Abstract

Cerium oxide (CeO₂) nanozymes, also known as nanoceria have emerged as a versatile class of catalytic nanomaterials capable of mimicking key redox enzymes, including oxidases and peroxidases. Their tunable Ce³⁺/Ce⁴⁺ redox cycling, high density of oxygen vacancies, and [...] Read more.

Cerium oxide (CeO₂) nanozymes, also known as nanoceria have emerged as a versatile class of catalytic nanomaterials capable of mimicking key redox enzymes, including oxidases and peroxidases. Their tunable Ce³⁺/Ce⁴⁺ redox cycling, high density of oxygen vacancies, and exceptional resistance to thermal, pH, and storage stress distinguish CeO₂ from conventional enzyme labels, such as horseradish peroxidase (HRP). In immunoassays, CeO₂ enables H₂O₂-free TMB (3,3’,5,5’-tetramethylbenzidine) oxidation, generating strong chromogenic signals with minimal background. Although CeO₂ nanozymes have been explored in colorimetric, chemiluminescent, and photoactive immunoassays, their integration into lateral flow immunoassays (LFIAs) remains limited, with only a few hybrid CeO₂-containing systems reported to date. This mini-review highlights the limitations of conventional peroxidase-based formats and explains how CeO₂’s redox cycling (Ce³⁺/Ce⁴⁺) and oxygen-vacancy-driven catalysis deliver stable, reagent-free signal amplification. Emphasis is placed on the synthetic control of CeO₂, conjugation chemistry with antibodies, and integration into LFIA architectures. CeO₂ enables hydrogen-peroxide-free colorimetric detection with improved robustness and sensitivity, positioning it as a promising catalytic label for point-of-care testing. However, it may aggregate in high-ionic-strength buffers, and its synthesis cost increases for highly uniform, vacancy-engineered materials. Surface functionalization with polymers or dopants and optimized dispersion strategies can mitigate these issues, guiding future practical implementations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biosensing Advances in Lateral Flow Assays (LFA))

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33 pages, 11370 KB

Open AccessReview

Nucleic Acid-Based Field-Effect Transistor Biosensors

by Haoyu Fan, Dekai Ye, Xiuli Gao, Yuan Luo and Lihua Wang

Biosensors 2026, 16(2), 95; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16020095 - 3 Feb 2026

Abstract

The demand for rapid and highly sensitive sensing technologies is increasing across diverse fields, including precise disease diagnosis, early-stage screening, and real-time environmental monitoring. Field-effect transistor (FET)-based sensing platforms have shown tremendous potential for detecting target molecules at extremely low concentrations, owing to [...] Read more.

The demand for rapid and highly sensitive sensing technologies is increasing across diverse fields, including precise disease diagnosis, early-stage screening, and real-time environmental monitoring. Field-effect transistor (FET)-based sensing platforms have shown tremendous potential for detecting target molecules at extremely low concentrations, owing to their ultrahigh sensitivity, label-free and amplification-free operation, and rapid response. In recent years, the rapid advancement of nucleic acid probe design and interfacial engineering has markedly accelerated the development of FET sensors, leading to the emergence of nucleic acid-based FET (NA-FET) biosensors. Beyond their fundamental role in nucleic acid detection, the integration of nucleic acid aptamers and framework nucleic acids has greatly expanded NA-FET biosensors’ applicability to a wide range of analytes and multiplexed detection. At the same time, advances in semiconductor materials have endowed the NA-FET biosensor with highly efficient signal transduction and diverse device architectures, enabling successful proof-of-concept demonstrations for various clinically and environmentally relevant molecular biomarkers. Furthermore, the integration into portable, wearable, and implantable devices has laid a solid foundation for their future development into real-world applications. This review summarizes recent cutting-edge progress in NA-FET biosensors, highlights key design strategies and performance improvements, and discusses current challenges, future development directions, and their prospects for practical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue DNA Molecular Engineering-Based Biosensors)

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33 pages, 2600 KB

Open AccessReview

A Comprehensive Review of Biochemical Insights and Advanced Packaging Technologies for Shelf-Life Enhancement of Temperate Fruits

by Sharath Kumar Nagaraja, Puneet Kumar, Kavitha R, Sajad Un Nabi, Javid Iqbal Mir, Mahendra Kumar Verma, Ozgun Kalkisim, Mustafa Akbulut, Yong Beom Kwon, Ho-Min Kang and Sheikh Mansoor

Biosensors 2026, 16(2), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16020094 - 2 Feb 2026

Abstract

Temperate fruits, mostly comprising pome, stone fruits, and berries with immense nutritional benefits and a storehouse of various therapeutic phytochemicals, are prone to several physiological disorders immediately after harvest. The etiology, symptom progression, and decay incidence are influenced by pre-harvest and post-harvest factors, [...] Read more.

Temperate fruits, mostly comprising pome, stone fruits, and berries with immense nutritional benefits and a storehouse of various therapeutic phytochemicals, are prone to several physiological disorders immediately after harvest. The etiology, symptom progression, and decay incidence are influenced by pre-harvest and post-harvest factors, causing significant economic loss with respect to both the energy and economics invested. Respiratory end products, ethylene generation, and enzymatic activities interact to influence the metabolic response and associated biochemical variation. Advanced packaging technologies have emerged as innovative solutions to curtail these post-harvest problems. The design and development of novel packaging technologies need to critically understand the respiratory behavior of the fruits and their associated metabolic functions. A desirable polymer or packaging technology should exhibit enhanced barriers to the gases while providing adequate support to the fruit matrix. In addition, it should also fulfill the role of environmental sustainability and the circular economy. The outcome of this review will highlight the importance of proper post-harvest procedure, appropriate pretreatment, packaging matrix selection, and the storage conditions for effective and enhanced shelf-life storage. Therefore, this review was structured in two phases; the first phase discusses the biochemical understanding of the fruit during storage and transit in response to stress factors. The next phase highlights the various packaging interventions (polymers, biodegradable films, edible coatings, smart packaging, nano-packaging) taken to address these issues, with a key focus on shelf-life enhancement. Further, the key limitations of each technology are appraised. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Environmental, Agricultural, and Food Biosensors)

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25 pages, 1620 KB

Open AccessReview

Wearable Sensors for Health Monitoring

by Caroline Abreu, Carla Bédard, Jean-Christophe Lourme and Benoit Piro

Biosensors 2026, 16(2), 93; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16020093 - 2 Feb 2026

Abstract

The growing global population and the rapid increase in older adults are driving healthcare costs upward. In response, the healthcare system is shifting toward models that enable continuous monitoring of individuals without requiring hospital admission. Advances in sensing technologies, embedded systems, wireless communication, [...] Read more.

The growing global population and the rapid increase in older adults are driving healthcare costs upward. In response, the healthcare system is shifting toward models that enable continuous monitoring of individuals without requiring hospital admission. Advances in sensing technologies, embedded systems, wireless communication, nanotechnology, and device miniaturization have made these smart systems possible. Wearable sensors can monitor physiological indicators and other symptoms, helping to detect unusual or unexpected events. This allows for the provision of timely assistance when it is needed most. This paper outlines the challenges associated with these systems and reviews recent developments in wearable, sensor-based human activity monitoring. The focus is on health monitoring applications, including relevant biomarkers, wearable and implantable sensors, and established sensor technologies currently used in healthcare, as well as future prospects. It also discusses the challenges involved in researching, developing, and applying these sensors. The goal is to promote the widespread use of these sensors in human health monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Human and Animal Health Monitoring)

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33 pages, 3343 KB

Open AccessReview

Recent Advances in Electrochemical Biosensors for the Detection of Milk Adulterants

by Roopkumar Sangubotla, Anthati Mastan and Jongsung Kim

Biosensors 2026, 16(2), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16020092 - 2 Feb 2026

Abstract

The precise and reliable detection of milk adulterants has garnered increased scientific interest owing to the rising incidence of food fraud. Recent years have witnessed substantial advancements in optical and electrochemical biosensors for the quick, sensitive, and on-site determination of adulterants. This review [...] Read more.

The precise and reliable detection of milk adulterants has garnered increased scientific interest owing to the rising incidence of food fraud. Recent years have witnessed substantial advancements in optical and electrochemical biosensors for the quick, sensitive, and on-site determination of adulterants. This review thoroughly emphasizes recent developments in electrochemical biosensors, encompassing amperometric, voltammetric, impedimetric, and photoelectrochemical sensors, alongside optical biosensors such as colorimetric, fluorometric, and plasmonic systems. Significant focus is directed towards determination of critical milk adulterants, including variations in pH, urea, formaldehyde (FA), melamine (MEL), nitrates (NO₃⁻), nitrites (NO₂⁻), and sulfites (SO₃²⁻). The sensing mechanisms, functional nanomaterials, analytical efficacy, and sample-handling techniques of the described biosensors are critically examined. Moreover, key challenges regarding matrix interference, sensor stability, reproducibility, regulatory validation, and large-scalability are addressed. Ultimately, future directions towards economical, portable, wearable, and Internet of Things (IoT)-integrated biosensors for continuous dairy monitoring are discussed, highlighting the necessity for standardized validation protocols and next-generation technologies in food safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical (Bio)Sensors as Promising Analytical Tools in the Analysis of Soils, Plants and Environmental Monitoring)

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4 pages, 1069 KB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Li et al. Magnetic SERS Strip Based on 4-mercaptophenylboronic Acid-Modified Fe₃O₄@Au for Active Capture and Simultaneous Detection of Respiratory Bacteria. Biosensors 2023, 13, 210

by Jingfei Li, Jin Chen, Yuwei Dai, Zhenzhen Liu, Junnan Zhao, Shuchen Liu and Rui Xiao

Biosensors 2026, 16(2), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16020091 - 2 Feb 2026

Abstract

Due to an error in the original publication [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors and Healthcare)

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17 pages, 8758 KB

Open AccessArticle

From the Clinic, to the Clinic: Improving the Fluorescent Imaging Quality of ICG via Amphiphilic NIR-IIa AIE Probe

by Anjun Zhu, Zhibo Xiao, Aihui Sun, Feng Lu, Haozhou Tang, Xuekun Zhang, Ran Ren, Wei Yu, Andong Shao, Ninghan Feng, Shouyu Wang, Jianming Ni and Yaxi Li

Biosensors 2026, 16(2), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16020090 - 1 Feb 2026

Abstract

Fluorescence imaging is crucial for providing detailed information in clinical practice. However, traditional first near-infrared (NIR-I) dyes such as indocyanine green (ICG) exhibit limitations such as shallow penetration depth, low contrast, and suboptimal clarity due to light scattering and autofluorescence. To overcome these [...] Read more.

Fluorescence imaging is crucial for providing detailed information in clinical practice. However, traditional first near-infrared (NIR-I) dyes such as indocyanine green (ICG) exhibit limitations such as shallow penetration depth, low contrast, and suboptimal clarity due to light scattering and autofluorescence. To overcome these drawbacks, we utilized a novel amphiphilic second near-infrared (NIR-II) aggregation-induced emission (AIE) probe (TCP) with an emission range beyond 1300 nm (NIR-IIa). Using approximately 200 co-registered NIR-I/NIR-IIa image pairs acquired with TCP, we trained a SwinUnet-based deep learning model to transform low-quality NIR-I ICG images into high-resolution NIR-IIa-like images. Owing to its superior brightness and photostability, TCP enhances in vivo fluorescent angiography, offering clearer vascular details and a higher signal-to-background ratio (SBR) in the NIR-IIa region, 2.6-fold higher than that of ICG in the NIR-I region. The deep learning model successfully converted blurred NIR-I images into high-SBR NIR-IIa-like images, achieving rapid imaging speeds without compromising quality. This work introduces a synergistic “probe-plus-AI” paradigm that substantially improves both the quality and speed of clinical fluorescence imaging, providing a pathway that is immediately translatable to enhanced diagnostics and image-guided surgery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Luminescent Materials in Biological Detection, Imaging, and Diagnostic Applications)

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