Forests

22 pages, 6091 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Physiological and Transcriptomic Analyses Reveal Mechanisms Regulating Endogenous Phytohormones in Adventitious Root Formation During Cinnamomum bodinieri Cutting Propagation

by Wanwen Yu, Yuhua Li, Yueting Zhang, Chenglin Luo, Yongjie Zheng, Ting Zhang, Chao Fu and Xinliang Liu

Forests 2025, 16(3), 509; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030509 - 13 Mar 2025

Abstract

Cinnamomum bodinieri is a tree species highly valued for its superior-quality timber and ecological benefits. However, its large-scale propagation is hindered by the low efficiency of adventitious root (AR) formation. This study investigated the physiological and molecular mechanisms underlying AR formation in C. [...] Read more.

Cinnamomum bodinieri is a tree species highly valued for its superior-quality timber and ecological benefits. However, its large-scale propagation is hindered by the low efficiency of adventitious root (AR) formation. This study investigated the physiological and molecular mechanisms underlying AR formation in C. bodinieri. The results revealed that ARs originate from callus tissue, with the root primordium classified as a latent type. During AR formation, concentrations of soluble protein and soluble sugar decreased, while the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), and indole-3-acetic acid oxidase (IAAO) peaked 20 days after cutting (CB2), with polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activity exhibiting an “N”-shaped trend. These findings indicate that substantial nutrient consumption is required for AR formation, with SOD, POD, PPO, and IAAO positively regulating the process. Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) levels significantly decreased during the early stages of cutting but increased thereafter, whereas the concentration of abscisic acid (ABA) continuously rose. Similar trends were observed for zeatin riboside (ZR) and gibberellic acid (GA). Transcriptome analysis identified 28 key genes involved in plant hormone signal transduction pathways. Furthermore, weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) pinpointed 14 hub genes, including CYP94B3 and NAC82, linked to hormone-associated traits. Furthermore, quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) confirmed the accuracy of the transcriptome sequencing results. This analysis uncovered critical interactions between hormonal signaling pathways and pivotal gene networks. Overall, the findings highlight the central regulatory role of endogenous hormones in AR formation, with IAA serving as the predominant regulator. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)

23 pages, 6030 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Circular Economy: A Lever for the Sustainable Development of the Wood and Forestry Sector in West Africa

by Yann Emmanuel Miassi, Nancy Gélinas and Kossivi Fabrice Dossa

Forests 2025, 16(3), 508; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030508 - 13 Mar 2025

Abstract

The circular economy (CE) has emerged as an innovative response to the challenges of economic growth and environmental protection. This study aims to establish a portrait of the circular economy within the wood forestry sector in Benin. The methodology includes field surveys through [...] Read more.

The circular economy (CE) has emerged as an innovative response to the challenges of economic growth and environmental protection. This study aims to establish a portrait of the circular economy within the wood forestry sector in Benin. The methodology includes field surveys through structured interviews in the southern and northern zones and a documentary analysis. Data were collected from direct and political stakeholders to assess their knowledge and practices. A discourse analysis, focusing on internal factors, was used to understand and analyze the motivations of local actors in the use of CE strategies. The results show that the most used strategies are maintenance and repair (52.38%), followed by donation and resale (18%). The motivations mentioned by the actors in the two zones are mainly economic (improving income and limiting expenses) and social (esthetic). However, if most of the actors do not perceive limits to these strategies, others highlight certain weaknesses, including the long process of transforming used goods (19.69%) and the loss of quality of recycled materials (15.44%). To address these weaknesses, alternative strategies, such as eco-design, optimization of operations, loan-exchange, and industrial ecology, are proposed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products)

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17 pages, 4249 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Water and Vegetation as a Source of UAV Forest Road Cross-Section Survey Error

by Ivica Papa, Maja Popović, Luka Hodak, Andreja Đuka, Tibor Pentek, Marko Hikl and Mihael Lovrinčević

Forests 2025, 16(3), 507; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030507 - 13 Mar 2025

Abstract

Planning in forestry should be based on accurate and reliable data. UAVs equipped with RGB cameras can enable fast and relatively cheap surveys, but their accuracy depends on many factors. Therefore, it is necessary to determine when UAVs can be used and when [...] Read more.

Planning in forestry should be based on accurate and reliable data. UAVs equipped with RGB cameras can enable fast and relatively cheap surveys, but their accuracy depends on many factors. Therefore, it is necessary to determine when UAVs can be used and when this type of survey gives data that does not reflect the true ground situation. This research analyzed the usability of a UAV, equipped with a RGB camera, for recording normal cross-sections and side ditch depths of the forest road in a lowland forest. The research was conducted in two time periods: during winter and spring, i.e., outside and during the vegetation season. DTMs of the area researched were created based on aerial photographs taken with the UAV, Z values of terrain points were read, and the depths of side ditches were calculated based on read Z values. The water depth in the side ditches and the vegetation height on the entire road body width were recorded to determine the influence of these two variables on the UAV survey error. Terrain points were recorded with the total station, which was the reference measurement method. An analysis of the obtained (read) DTM Z values revealed RMSE values of 10.09 cm for winter (outside vegetation) and 36.41 cm for spring (vegetation) UAV survey. The side ditch, calculated based on the DTM of the winter and spring periods of UAV recording, were statistically significantly different from the side ditch depths measured using the total station. Correcting the obtained data with water depth and vegetation height lowered the differences in Z values, as well as the ditch depths visible from

{R M S E}_{Z}

(7.70 cm) for the winter UAV survey, with no statistically significant difference in side ditch depths. In the case of the correction of spring recording data,

{R M S E}_{Z}

was smaller (23.41 cm) than before correction (36.41 cm), and the depth of the side ditches was still statistically significantly different. The authors conclude that water and ground vegetation can significantly affect UAV survey accuracy. In the winter period, side ditch depth measurement is possible in areas where water is not present. If water is present, manual measurement of water height and correction of obtained UAV data can improve data accuracy. On the other hand, spring or vegetation period UAV surveys are highly affected by ground vegetation height and the authors do not recommend surveys in that period. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Research Developments on Forest Road Planning and Design)

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16 pages, 2961 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.) Dieback Dynamics in the Białowieża Forest, Poland, Using Bi-Temporal High-Resolution Remote Sensing Data

by Agnieszka Kamińska, Maciej Lisiewicz, Bartłomiej Kraszewski, Miłosz Tkaczyk, Krzysztof Stereńczak and Emilia Wysocka-Fijorek

Forests 2025, 16(3), 506; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030506 - 13 Mar 2025

Abstract

The ash dieback epidemic, caused by the fungus Hymenoscyphus fraxineus, has been a significant issue in Europe for over 20 years, severely affecting ash tree populations (Fraxinus excelsior L.). In the Białowieża Forest, ash trees now represent less than 1% of [...] Read more.

The ash dieback epidemic, caused by the fungus Hymenoscyphus fraxineus, has been a significant issue in Europe for over 20 years, severely affecting ash tree populations (Fraxinus excelsior L.). In the Białowieża Forest, ash trees now represent less than 1% of the species composition, with a sharp decline observed over the past several decades. This study aims to map the dynamics of ash mortality in the Białowieża Forest and assess the influence of habitat and stand factors on the severity of mortality. We utilized bi-temporal high-resolution remote sensing data from 2015 to 2019 to track the decline of ash trees and to identify factors affecting mortality. The analysis employed a combination of Boosted Regression Trees (BRTs) and hotspot analyses. Our results show that between 2015 and 2019, 29% of the living ash trees in the canopy layer of the forest died. The findings indicate that ash mortality was most pronounced in stands with a high proportion of ash trees, particularly where dead deciduous trees were already present. Intensive dieback of other deciduous trees was also noted in these stands. This study provides valuable insights into the factors influencing ash mortality dynamics and demonstrates the potential of remote sensing for large-scale monitoring of tree health. The results have important implications for forest management and conservation, offering baseline data that can inform strategies to manage ash dieback and guide targeted interventions in affected forest areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

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25 pages, 19040 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Drought Driving Factors as Revealed by Geographic Detector Model and Random Forest in Yunnan, China

by Haiqin Qin, Douglas Allen Schaefer, Ting Shen, Junchuan Wang, Zhaorui Liu, Huafang Chen, Ping Hu, Yingmo Zhu, Jinxin Cheng, Jianping Wu and Jianchu Xu

Forests 2025, 16(3), 505; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030505 - 12 Mar 2025

Abstract

Yunnan Province, as a critical ecological security barrier in China, has long been highly susceptible to drought events. Characterizing the spatiotemporal distributions of drought and identifying its driving factors is crucial. Due to the complexity of drought occurrence, linear correlation analysis alone is [...] Read more.

Yunnan Province, as a critical ecological security barrier in China, has long been highly susceptible to drought events. Characterizing the spatiotemporal distributions of drought and identifying its driving factors is crucial. Due to the complexity of drought occurrence, linear correlation analysis alone is insufficient to quantify drought drivers and their interactions. This study used the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) as a drought indicator to analyze the spatiotemporal trends of drought across Yunnan and its six major river basins. The geographic detector model (GDM) and random forest (RF) were utilized to quantify the impacts of meteorological, topographical, soil, and human activities on drought, as well as the interactions among these factors. The results showed that 63.61% of the study area exhibits a significant drying trend (p-value < 0.05), with the Jinsha River Basin (JSRB) experiencing the highest frequency of extreme drought events. Precipitation (PRE), temperature, potential evapotranspiration (PET), vapor pressure deficit (VPD), and relative humidity (RH) were identified as the primary controlling factors of drought, with factor interactions displaying nonlinear enhancement effects. PRE plays a dominant role in driving drought across Yunnan, whereas elevation primarily influenced drought severity in the JSRB, Lancang River Basin (LCRB), and Nujiang River Basin (NJRB). The RF-based SPEI prediction model demonstrated superior performance in simulating short-term drought (SPEI_1, R² > 0.931, RMSE < 0.279), particularly in the JSRB (R² = 0.947 RMSE = 0.228). These findings provide a scientific basis for regional water resource management applications and drought early warning systems, offering a robust framework for understanding and mitigating drought impacts in ecologically sensitive regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Hydrology)

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24 pages, 7220 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating Distance to the Pith as a Parameter for Strength Grading of Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco)

by Guillaume Pot, Joffrey Viguier and Anders Olsson

Forests 2025, 16(3), 504; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030504 - 12 Mar 2025

Abstract

Distance to the pith is a parameter that is known to be correlated with the mechanical properties of wood, but it is not utilized in strength grading machines. This study aimed to investigate how different the mechanical properties and grading yields are for [...] Read more.

Distance to the pith is a parameter that is known to be correlated with the mechanical properties of wood, but it is not utilized in strength grading machines. This study aimed to investigate how different the mechanical properties and grading yields are for Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) boards with small and large distances to the pith, respectively, and whether the distance to the pith could be an interesting parameter to use for strength grading in combination with other predictor variables. For this purpose, 221 boards were scanned to obtain fiber orientation and local density. Their dynamic modulus of elasticity and distance to the pith were measured, and they were finally tested in bending. The boards were classified into two categories: corewood if a board’s cross-section was entirely located within a radius of 200 mm from the pith, and outerwood otherwise. The results show that corewood presents lower mechanical properties than outerwood, explained especially by the higher knottiness of corewood. Distance to the pith improves the grading yields of a machine based on fiber orientation measurements, but using the dynamic modulus of elasticity rather than the distance to the pith leads to better results. Distance to the pith can be used as a single or secondary parameter to predict timber strength if the dynamic modulus of elasticity is not used. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products)

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19 pages, 1767 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Economic Value Estimation for Protected Forest Areas with Hedonic Pricing: Case of Uzungöl Natural Park

by Mahmut M. Bayramoğlu, Emre Küçükbekir, Zeki Candan and Cenk Demirkir

Forests 2025, 16(3), 503; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030503 - 12 Mar 2025

Abstract

Due to the increase in recreational demands, the significance of protected areas and forests with recreational potential in forests increased with the demands of nature tourism, which in turn provided new income sources to the forestry industry. In the current study, the economic [...] Read more.

Due to the increase in recreational demands, the significance of protected areas and forests with recreational potential in forests increased with the demands of nature tourism, which in turn provided new income sources to the forestry industry. In the current study, the economic values of the Uzungöl Nature Park’s lake view, an international tourist destination, were estimated using the hedonic pricing method. In the study, 188 questionnaires were conducted with 89 businesses, and the hedonic price function (HPF) was determined based on the study data collected from the businesses in Uzungöl Nature Park. It was estimated that the mean lake view in-room accommodation price for the hotels in Uzungöl Nature Park was USD 207.38 and the lake causes an increase of $2.8 per square meter and $144.67 in total on the room price of the hotels. The study findings demonstrated that the lake view was a desirable quality for hotel rooms, which is reflected in the prices in Uzungöl. The significant contribution of the lake view to room prices would support the planning and management of protected areas that are usually rich in natural resources. Determining the economic value of the lake view will enable business owners operating in the region or those planning to establish new businesses to make more informed pricing strategies. It will also strengthen hotel owners’ marketing campaigns and enable them to think more rationally about new investments (such as adding rooms or services). Business owners will be able to optimize their rooms based on lake views in order to offer more lake-view rooms to customers. Determining the economic value of the lake view will raise awareness about the protection of natural areas. By investing in eco-friendly and sustainable practices, hotel owners will contribute to the conservation of natural resources. The value estimates determined in the present study would also contribute to the employment of total forest value calculations and resource accounting systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social and Cultural Benefits of Forests Contributing to Human Health and Well-Being)

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21 pages, 19780 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Post-Fire Forest Ecological Quality Recovery Driven by Topographic Variation in Complex Plateau Regions: A 2006–2020 Landsat RSEI Time-Series Analysis

by Jiayue Gao, Yue Chen, Bo Xu, Wei Li, Jiangxia Ye, Weili Kou and Weiheng Xu

Forests 2025, 16(3), 502; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030502 - 12 Mar 2025

Abstract

Forest fires are an important disturbance that affects ecosystem stability and pose a serious threat to the ecosystem. However, the recovery process of forest ecological quality (EQ) after a fire in plateau mountain areas is not well understood. This study utilizes the Google [...] Read more.

Forest fires are an important disturbance that affects ecosystem stability and pose a serious threat to the ecosystem. However, the recovery process of forest ecological quality (EQ) after a fire in plateau mountain areas is not well understood. This study utilizes the Google Earth Engine (GEE) and Landsat data to generate difference indices, including NDVI, NBR, EVI, NDMI, NDWI, SAVI, and BSI. After segmentation using the Simple Non-Iterative Clustering (SNIC) method, the data were input into a random forest (RF) model to accurately extract the burned area. A 2005–2020 remote sensing ecological index (RSEI) time series was constructed, and the recovery of post-fire forest EQ was evaluated through Theil–Sen slope estimation, Mann–Kendall (MK) trend test, stability analysis, and integration with topographic information systems. The study shows that (1) from 2006 to 2020, the post-fire forest EQ improved year by year, with an average annual increase rate of 0.014/a. The recovery process exhibited an overall trend of “decline initially-fluctuating increase-stabilization”, indicating that RSEI can be used to evaluate the post-fire forest EQ in complex plateau mountainous regions. (2) Between 2006 and 2020, the EQ of forests exhibited a significant increasing trend spatially, with 84.32% of the areas showing notable growth in RSEI, while 1.80% of the regions experienced a declining trend. (3) The coefficient of variation (CV) of RSEI in the study area was 0.16 during the period 2006–2020, indicating good overall stability in the process of post-fire forest EQ recovery. (4) Fire has a significant impact on the EQ of forests in low-altitude areas, steep slopes, and sun-facing slopes, and recovery is slow. This study offers scientific evidence for monitoring and assessing the recovery of post-fire forest EQ in plateau mountainous regions and can also inform ecological restoration and management efforts in similar areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Ecology and Management in Forest—2nd Edition)

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24 pages, 4712 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Forestry Needs and Challenges in Portugal: Insights from the Sector Interested Parties

by Sofia Corticeiro, Helena Vieira, Mariana Almeida, Dionísia Laranjeiro, Ana Lillebø and Bruna R. F. Oliveira

Forests 2025, 16(3), 501; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030501 - 12 Mar 2025

Abstract

Forests are one of the most predominant types of land usage in Portugal and are highly relevant in terms of environmental, economic, social, and political factors. Increasing the value and the resilience of the Portuguese forest, defining adequate policies, and aligning forest research [...] Read more.

Forests are one of the most predominant types of land usage in Portugal and are highly relevant in terms of environmental, economic, social, and political factors. Increasing the value and the resilience of the Portuguese forest, defining adequate policies, and aligning forest research with society needs requires a truthful comprehension of the most relevant challenges in this sector. This study identifies and analyzes the most relevant needs and challenges impacting the Portuguese forestry sector, both currently and over a five-year period, from the stakeholder’s perspective. A participatory approach was employed, engaging national and regional forest stakeholders, to ensure a realistic vision of the forest sector in Portugal. A total of 116 topics were identified, with a predominance of immediate challenges over future information needs, underscoring the urgent pressures on the sector. Environmental/ecological and policy issues dominated the identified needs and challenges, reflecting the urgency for strategic interventions in these areas. A significant emphasis was placed on the mitigation of climate change impacts, mainly associated with biotic and abiotic risks, promoting technological advanced forest management, and the sector valorization. Policy and legal issues, such as fragmented ownership and adequate economic and fiscal incentives, were also identified as major concerns. The findings highlight the interconnected nature of forestry challenges and the need for integrated, multidisciplinary, and transdisciplinary approaches, prioritizing research on climate impacts, developing adaptive management strategies, promoting stakeholder engagement, and enhancing capacity-building initiatives. The results of this study make it a relevant case study for other forest stakeholders in similar regions in Europe with comparative forest management models and can inspire new solutions for common challenges opening new research avenues for other forest related academics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)

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18 pages, 11047 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Forest Soil Fungal Diversity in Stands of Norway Spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) of Different Ages

by Juris Katrevičs, Krišs Bitenieks, Āris Jansons, Baiba Jansone and Dainis Edgars Ruņģis

Forests 2025, 16(3), 500; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030500 - 12 Mar 2025

Abstract

Fungal communities can be used as indicators of various environmental processes in forest ecosystems. The diversity of these communities is linked to aboveground plants and soil properties. We assessed fungal diversity at four Norway spruce sampling sites that were growing on fertile mineral [...] Read more.

Fungal communities can be used as indicators of various environmental processes in forest ecosystems. The diversity of these communities is linked to aboveground plants and soil properties. We assessed fungal diversity at four Norway spruce sampling sites that were growing on fertile mineral soils (Oxalidosa) in northwestern Latvia. Three sites were managed—a three-year-old clear-cut and fifty- and eighty-five-year-old stands; one site was unmanaged—a naturally regenerated site after wind damage in 1969. For metabarcoding, we used a fungal internal transcribed spacer (ITS2) and high throughput sequencing with the Ion Torrent platform. Our results showed high operational taxonomic unit richness in the samples, with notable variation in community composition between individual plots both within and among sites, with the highest being in managed, middle-aged stands and the lowest in unmanaged. Significant differences in the diversity of soil fungal communities were not detected between the sites. Redundancy analysis indicated that pH, soil organic matter, organic carbon, and nitrogen were the most important soil variables that explained the variation in fungal communities. The unmanaged stand differed notably by community composition. This study highlights the importance of monitoring forest soil environmental parameters and fungal communities to gain a more comprehensive assessment of forestry management regimes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Biodiversity)

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14 pages, 2784 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stand States Drive Disparities in the Carbon Storage Within a Masson Pine Forest Ecosystem

by Jiamin Hu, Weihua Wen and Zongzheng Chai

Forests 2025, 16(3), 499; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030499 - 12 Mar 2025

Abstract

Forest ecosystems are important for carbon storage but vary in their ability to do so. Here, we examined the relationship between stand state and ecosystem carbon storage in Pinus massoniana forests, pinpointed key stand state indicators affecting carbon storage, and provided a basis [...] Read more.

Forest ecosystems are important for carbon storage but vary in their ability to do so. Here, we examined the relationship between stand state and ecosystem carbon storage in Pinus massoniana forests, pinpointed key stand state indicators affecting carbon storage, and provided a basis for management to enhance ecosystem carbon storage. We selected nine indicators representing structure (diameter at breast height (DBH) distribution, tree height distribution, stand density), vitality (stand dominance, stand growth, and tree health), and diversity (species composition, species diversity, and species evenness) to evaluate the stand state. Multivariate statistical analyses, specifically the Mantel test and Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA), were employed to explore the complex relationships between the stand states of P. massoniana forests and their carbon storage. We found that (1) stand state has a strong influence on carbon storage, but there is autocorrelation among the indicators of stand states; (2) stand structural attributes have a stronger association with ecosystem carbon storage than vitality and diversity. The primary stand state indicators associated with ecosystem carbon storage are DBH distribution (H), tree growth (B), stand density (K), tree height distribution (V), and species evenness (P); (3) the stand density (K) significantly affects the carbon storage in the vegetation layer, while the DBH distribution (H) significantly affects the carbon storage in the soil layer. None of the nine stand-state indicators, however, has a major influence on the carbon storage in the litter layer. Our results indicate that important stand-state indicators can be managed to improve forest quality and carbon storage in P. massoniana forests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Growth and Stand Dynamics of Unmanaged and Managed Forests Under Global Change)

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14 pages, 3326 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Accuracy of Measuring Methods of Pile Volume of Forest Harvesting Residues and Economic Impacts

by Ladislav Zvěřina, Miloš Cibulka, Radomír Ulrich, Tomáš Badal and Václav Kupčák

Forests 2025, 16(3), 498; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030498 - 12 Mar 2025

Abstract

The accurate measurement of logging residue volume is essential for efficient resource management and economic planning in the biomass supply chain. This study compares 3D laser scanning using a mobile ZEB-HORIZON™ scanner and conventional manual measurement with a measuring tape and staff rod. [...] Read more.

The accurate measurement of logging residue volume is essential for efficient resource management and economic planning in the biomass supply chain. This study compares 3D laser scanning using a mobile ZEB-HORIZON™ scanner and conventional manual measurement with a measuring tape and staff rod. Measurements were conducted at three locations in the Czech Republic, covering a representative sample of logging residue piles. The results indicate that manual measurement systematically overestimates biomass volume by approximately 35%, leading to potential inaccuracies in biomass trade and logistics. The average conversion coefficient was 0.35 for laser scanning and 0.23 for manual measurement, confirming the higher precision of 3D scanning. Statistical analysis, including the Shapiro–Wilk test for normality and a paired t-test, confirmed that the differences between methods were statistically significant (p < 0.0001). Economic analysis suggests that adopting 3D laser scanning can enhance logistics planning, optimize transport capacities, and improve fairness in business transactions. Compared to manual measurement, laser scanning reduces measurement time by approximately two-thirds while preventing overestimation errors that can lead to discrepancies exceeding three times the actual biomass revenues. Unlike manual methods, laser scanning eliminates measurement inconsistencies caused by pile irregularities, terrain conditions, and human error. The study recommends prioritizing 3D laser scanning for measuring logging residue volumes, particularly for larger and irregularly shaped piles, and incorporating moisture content analysis in economic assessments to improve pricing accuracy and transparency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

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18 pages, 9552 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New Remote Sensing Index for the Detection of Multi-Type Forest Anomalies Based on Sentinel-2 Imagery

by Dalin Liang, Biao Cao, Qiao Wang, Jianbo Qi, Kun Jia, Wenzhi Zhao and Kai Yan

Forests 2025, 16(3), 497; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030497 - 11 Mar 2025

Abstract

Forest anomalies (e.g., pests, deforestation, and fires) are increasingly frequent phenomena on Earth’s surface. Rapid detection of these anomalies is crucial for sustainable forest management and development. On-orbit remote sensing detection of multi-type forest anomalies using single-temporal images is one of the most [...] Read more.

Forest anomalies (e.g., pests, deforestation, and fires) are increasingly frequent phenomena on Earth’s surface. Rapid detection of these anomalies is crucial for sustainable forest management and development. On-orbit remote sensing detection of multi-type forest anomalies using single-temporal images is one of the most promising methods for achieving it. Nevertheless, existing forest anomaly detection methods rely on time series image analysis or are designed to detect a single type of forest anomaly. In this study, a Forest Anomaly Comprehensive Index (FACI) is proposed to detect multi-type forest anomalies using single-temporal Sentinel-2 images. First, the spectral characteristics of different forest anomaly events were analyzed to obtain potential band combinations. Then, the formulation of FACI was determined using imagery simulated by the LargE-Scale remote sensing data and image Simulation framework over heterogeneous 3D scenes (LESS) model. The thresholds for FACI for different anomalies were determined using the interquartile method and 90 in situ survey samples. The accuracy of FACI was quantitatively assessed using an additional 90 in situ survey samples. Evaluation results indicated that the overall accuracy of FACI in detecting the three forest anomalies was 88.3%, with a Kappa coefficient of 0.84. The overall accuracy of existing indices (NDVI, NDWI, SAVI, BSI, and TAI) is below 80%, with Kappa coefficients less than 0.7. In the end, a case study in Ji’an, Jiangxi Province, confirmed the ability of FACI to detect different stages of pest infection, as well as deforestation and forest fires, using single-temporal satellite images. The FACI provides a promising method for the on-orbit satellite detection of multi-type forest anomalies in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

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22 pages, 3379 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Making Timber Accessible to Forest Communities: A Study on Locally Adapted, Motor–Manual Forest Management Schemes in the Eastern Lowlands of Bolivia

by Benno Pokorny, Juan Carlos Montero Terrazas, James Johnson, Karen Mendoza Ortega, Walter Cano Cardona and Wil de Jong

Forests 2025, 16(3), 496; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030496 - 11 Mar 2025

Abstract

Forest communities around the world have great difficulties in utilizing the economic potential of their forests, especially timber, under current technical requirements and legal frameworks. The present study examines the feasibility of motor–manual timber management among indigenous Chiquitano communities in Bolivia’s Eastern Lowlands. [...] Read more.

Forest communities around the world have great difficulties in utilizing the economic potential of their forests, especially timber, under current technical requirements and legal frameworks. The present study examines the feasibility of motor–manual timber management among indigenous Chiquitano communities in Bolivia’s Eastern Lowlands. It evaluates local practices, tests technical optimization options, and assesses their technical, financial, and environmental impacts. Findings reveal that traditional motor–manual timber production is scarcely profitable, exacerbated by burdensome legal frameworks and limited market access. However, motor–manual forest management remains an essential source of income for communities, and it constitutes an important option for rural development. Field tests demonstrate that, with the use of better equipment such as quality chainsaws, and improved maintenance and workflows, productivity and profitability of local logging can be enhanced. Despite a low environmental impact, optimized motor–manual timber management continues to be constrained by governance challenges, logistical limitations, and limited markets for locally produced timber. The study recommends optimizing these aspects, including targeted technical support, market development, simplified legal frameworks, and the setting up of robust local governance structures to replace ineffective centralized command and control approaches. These improvements would enable communities to sustainably use timber from their forests while addressing their socio-economic needs. The findings underscore the potential of logging by local communities as an alternative to large-scale mechanized logging, for Bolivia and in other tropical forest countries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)

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28 pages, 5483 KiB

Open AccessReview

Timber Harvesting in Mountainous Regions: A Comprehensive Review

by Lucian Dinca, Cristinel Constandache, Ruxandra Postolache, Gabriel Murariu and Eliza Tupu

Forests 2025, 16(3), 495; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030495 - 11 Mar 2025

Abstract

Mountain ecosystems play a crucial role in providing ecosystem services, with some of the most important being carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation, land protection, and water source preservation. Additionally, timber harvesting in these regions presents significant environmental, economic, and social challenges. This study provides [...] Read more.

Mountain ecosystems play a crucial role in providing ecosystem services, with some of the most important being carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation, land protection, and water source preservation. Additionally, timber harvesting in these regions presents significant environmental, economic, and social challenges. This study provides a comprehensive bibliometric and systematic analysis of publications on timber harvesting in mountainous areas, examining the current state, global trends, key contributors, and the impact of forestry operations. A total of 357 publications on timber harvesting in mountainous areas have been identified, spanning from 1983 to 2024. These publications predominantly originate from the USA, Canada, Australia, and China, with additional contributions from European institutions. The research is published in leading forestry, ecology, and environmental science journals, highlighting its global impact. This study provides an in-depth bibliometric and systematic analysis, assessing research trends, key contributors, and their influence on scientific advancements in sustainable forestry and ecological conservation. These articles belong to the scientific fields of Environmental Science and Ecology, Forestry, Zoology, and Biodiversity Conservation, among others. They have been published in numerous journals, with the most frequently cited ones being Forest Ecology and Management, Journal of Wildlife Management, and Forests. The most frequently used keywords include dynamics, management, and timber harvest. The analysis of publications on timber harvesting in mountainous areas highlights the widespread use of primary harvesting methods, the negative effects of logging activities on soil, forest regeneration processes, and wildlife populations, as well as the role of advanced technologies in improving harvesting efficiency. While sustainable management practices, such as selective cutting and low-impact harvesting techniques, can mitigate some negative effects, concerns remain regarding soil erosion, habitat alteration, and carbon emissions. This analysis underscores the need for flexible forest management strategies that balance economic efficiency with ecological sustainability. Future research should focus on innovative harvesting techniques, adaptation measures to terrain and climate conditions, and the long-term impact of forestry activities on mountain ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Forest Operations Planning and Management)

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16 pages, 6314 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Distribution and Dendrometry Evolution of Gall Oak (Quercus faginea Lam.) Forest Stands in the Region of Murcia (Southeastern Spain) as an Indicator of Climate Change

by Miguel Ángel Sánchez-Sánchez and Alfonso Albacete

Forests 2025, 16(3), 494; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030494 - 11 Mar 2025

Abstract

The southeast of Spain is one of the most arid and desertification-prone areas in continental Europe, with climate change contributing to this situation. Climatic conditions affect the availability of water in the plant structures of wild species, facilitating the onset and/or spread of [...] Read more.

The southeast of Spain is one of the most arid and desertification-prone areas in continental Europe, with climate change contributing to this situation. Climatic conditions affect the availability of water in the plant structures of wild species, facilitating the onset and/or spread of forest fires and increasing aridity. The Region of Murcia, in southeastern Spain, has small forest stands of gall oak (Quercus faginea Lam.) with relict value. It is of interest to investigate the situation of these stands, allowing us to know about their distribution and their evolution in the face of climate change. For this purpose, previous dendrometric studies, available from a specific stand, are considered to be contrasted with current data, individual trees were geolocated, and distribution maps of contrasting environmental conditions were created. In general, gall oak has been observed to be distributed up to 1200 m altitude, especially in shady areas and embedded valleys and north-northeast orientations. Importantly, there was a positive evolution of vegetative development, with increments in the number of trees during the study period, despite some negative affections in specific areas due to climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Meteorology and Climate Change)

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16 pages, 4198 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Early- and Latewood vs. Stem Asymmetry: Which Is More Important for Dendrochemistry in Scots Pine?

by Vladimir L. Gavrikov, Alexey I. Fertikov, Ruslan A. Sharafutdinov and Eugene A. Vaganov

Forests 2025, 16(3), 493; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030493 - 11 Mar 2025

Abstract

For dendrochemical research, it may be important to be aware of the effects of stem asymmetry and the intra-ring structure because these may introduce unwanted dispersion in the results. In dendrochemical studies, separate analysis of the elemental content of early- and latewood is [...] Read more.

For dendrochemical research, it may be important to be aware of the effects of stem asymmetry and the intra-ring structure because these may introduce unwanted dispersion in the results. In dendrochemical studies, separate analysis of the elemental content of early- and latewood is rare. Also, explanations of how the elemental content may relate to stem asymmetry originating from conditions at the edges of contrasting environments are largely lacking in these studies. The purpose of the current study was to estimate the impact of the seasonal tree ring structure and stem asymmetry on the distribution of elements in tree stems. The study population was a plantation of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) at an afforestation experiment area, with the sample trees being at the edge of the stand, causing strong crown asymmetry. Six pine trees were cored through the thickness from the maximal crown side (max-side) to the minimal crown side (min-side), and the cores were subsequently scanned through an Itrax Multiscanner unit. The count rates of aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), phosphorus (P), sulfur (S), chlorine (Cl), calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and strontium (Sr) in the tree rings from 1990 to 2022 were analyzed. A group of elements (Al, Si, P, S, and Cl) tended to consistently concentrate on the min-side, both in early- and latewood, the difference being most significant for S and Cl. Regarding early- vs. latewood, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, Cu, and Zn always had lower concentration in earlywood than in latewood, while others (Ca, Fe, and Sr) had lower concentrations in latewood, the relations being consistently significant. Overall, the role of the min- or max-side of the stem in allocation of elements appears to have been weaker that the intra-ring structure (early- and latewood). Some elements such as Al, Si, P, S, Cl, and Ca (in latewood) were often more abundant on the min-side; other elements such as Fe and Sr (in latewood) were often more abundant on the max-side, but these relations were significant only on rare occasions. Intra-ring heterogeneity (in early- and latewood) appears to be more decisive than the asymmetry of the tree stem in regard to the distribution of elements in Scots pine xylem. Nevertheless, tree stems with high and obvious asymmetry should be more extensively explored because a possibility remains that extreme asymmetry does impact the allocation of elements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dendrochemistry: Tools for Evaluating Variations in Past and Present Forest Environments (2nd Edition))

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22 pages, 5157 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Postural Classification by Image Embedding and Transfer Learning: An Example of Using the OWAS Method in Motor-Manual Work to Automate the Process and Save Resources

by Gabriel Osei Forkuo, Stelian Alexandru Borz, Tomi Kaakkurivaara and Nopparat Kaakkurivaara

Forests 2025, 16(3), 492; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030492 - 11 Mar 2025

Abstract

Forest operations often expose workers to physical risks, including posture-related disorders such as low back pain. The Ovako Working Posture Assessment System (OWAS) is widely used to assess postures in forest operations, but it requires expertise and significant resources. In this study, the [...] Read more.

Forest operations often expose workers to physical risks, including posture-related disorders such as low back pain. The Ovako Working Posture Assessment System (OWAS) is widely used to assess postures in forest operations, but it requires expertise and significant resources. In this study, the use of image embedding and transfer learning was explored to automate OWAS classification. Over 5000 images from motor–manual cross-cutting operations were analyzed using two models: Google’s Inception V3 and SqueezeNet, both of which were integrated with neural networks via the Orange Visual Programming platform. The image vectors were fed into a locally run neural network (a multilayer perceptron with backpropagation) that was optimized for architecture and hyperparameters. The models were trained and tested using 20-fold cross-validation on the Posture and Action datasets, achieving accuracies of 84% and 89%, respectively, with Inception V3 outperforming SqueezeNet on both datasets. Predictions on unseen images yielded lower accuracies (50%–60%), highlighting the challenge of domain differences. These results demonstrate the potential of embedding-based transfer learning to automate postural classification with high accuracy, thereby reducing the need for expertise and resources. However, further research is needed to improve performance on unseen data and to explore alternative classifiers and embedding methods for better representation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Addressing Forest Ergonomics Issues: Laborers and Working Conditions)

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23 pages, 10960 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deforestation in the Colombian Amazon: Perception of Its Causes and Actors in Puerto Guzmán, Putumayo

by Oscar Hernando Eraso Terán, Anna Badia Perpinyà and Meritxell Gisbert Traveria

Forests 2025, 16(3), 491; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030491 - 11 Mar 2025

Abstract

Deforestation in the municipality of Puerto Guzmán, located in the Colombian Amazon, has increased significantly in recent years with negative consequences for the region’s ecosystems. This paper article aims to explore local perceptions of the causes and actors of deforestation in Puerto Guzmán [...] Read more.

Deforestation in the municipality of Puerto Guzmán, located in the Colombian Amazon, has increased significantly in recent years with negative consequences for the region’s ecosystems. This paper article aims to explore local perceptions of the causes and actors of deforestation in Puerto Guzmán through a qualitative approach. Semi-structured interviews and documentary review were used as data collection techniques. A total of 25 interviews were conducted with different stakeholders between June and October 2022. ATLAS.ti 9 software was used for data processing. The study found that the main perceived causes of deforestation in Puerto Guzmán are extensive cattle ranchers, illegal mining and illicit crops. The main actors of deforestation include businesspeople and raising cattle in Caquetá, as well as local armed groups involved in illicit crop cultivation and illegal mining, which generate violence and intimidation in the community. Almost all of the actors belong to the local community, with the exception of some members of the armed groups who come from other regions. The various actors interviewed identified education as possible alternative solution and suggested improvements to the illicit crops substitution programmes. It was concluded that there is a loss of trust among the actors living in Puerto Guzmán, particularly in relation to the management of international cooperation funds intended to support efforts to reduce deforestation. The communities are aware of these resources and claim that they belong to them and therefore expect them to be given directly to them. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)

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