Processes

Research

14 pages, 768 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Organic Amendment for the Recovery of Vineyard Soils: Effects of a Single Application on Soil Properties over Two Years

by Eliseo Herrero-Hernández, M. Soledad Andrades, Gonzalo Villalba Eguren, María J. Sánchez-Martín, M. Sonia Rodríguez-Cruz and Jesús M. Marín-Benito

Processes 2022, 10(2), 317; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10020317 - 7 Feb 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1974

Abstract

Spent mushroom substrate (SMS) is the organic residue generated during mushroom cultivation, and it is being produced in ever-greater quantities around the world. Different applications for this residue have been proposed for its valorization, but its application as a soil amendment could be [...] Read more.

Spent mushroom substrate (SMS) is the organic residue generated during mushroom cultivation, and it is being produced in ever-greater quantities around the world. Different applications for this residue have been proposed for its valorization, but its application as a soil amendment could be one of the most sustainable. SMS improves soil quality by increasing its organic matter (OM), thereby enhancing the sustainability of agricultural systems. The objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of the application of two doses of SMS on the chemical, biochemical, and microbiological characteristics of two degraded vineyard soils in La Rioja (Spain) with different textures, as a new regenerative agricultural practice. The variations in organic carbon (OC), micro- and macronutrients, soil microbial biomass (BIO), respiration (RES), dehydrogenase activity (DHA), and the profile of phospholipid fatty acids (PLFAs) extracted from the soils were evaluated over two years. An initial increase in soil OC content was recorded in both soils, although the content that remained over time differed for each site. In general, SMS enhanced DHA, RES, and BIO in the soils, but the effect varied, possibly being conditioned by the availability of OC for soil microorganisms. In general, changes in the soils’ microbial structure after SMS application were not very significant over the two-year experimental period. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 3941 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

High-Throughput Computational Screening of Ionic Liquids for Butadiene and Butene Separation

by Hao Qin, Zihao Wang, Zhen Song, Xiang Zhang and Teng Zhou

Processes 2022, 10(1), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10010165 - 15 Jan 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2692

Abstract

The separation of 1,3-butadiene (1,3-C₄H₆) and 1-butene (n-C₄H₈) is quite challenging due to their close boiling points and similar molecular structures. Extractive distillation (ED) is widely regarded as a promising approach for such a separation [...] Read more.

The separation of 1,3-butadiene (1,3-C₄H₆) and 1-butene (n-C₄H₈) is quite challenging due to their close boiling points and similar molecular structures. Extractive distillation (ED) is widely regarded as a promising approach for such a separation task. For ED processes, the selection of suitable entrainer is of central importance. Traditional ED processes using organic solvents suffer from high energy consumption. To tackle this issue, the utilization of ionic liquids (ILs) can serve as a potential alternative. In this work, a high-throughput computational screening of ILs is performed to find proper entrainers, where 36,260 IL candidates comprising of 370 cations and 98 anions are involved. COSMO-RS is employed to calculate the infinite dilution extractive capacity and selectivity of the 36,260 ILs. In doing so, the ILs that satisfy the prespecified thermodynamic criteria and physical property constraints are identified. After the screening, the resulting IL candidates are sent for rigorous process simulation and design. 1,2,3,4,5-pentamethylimidazolium methylcarbonate is found to be the optimal IL solvent. Compared with the benchmark ED process where the organic solvent N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone is adopted, the energy consumption is reduced by 26%. As a result, this work offers a new IL-based ED process for efficient 1,3-C₄H₆ production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 692 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Estimation of Shutdown Schedule to Remove Fouling Layers of Heat Exchangers Using Risk-Based Inspection (RBI)

by Abdelnaser Elwerfalli, Salih Alsadaie and Iqbal M. Mujtaba

Processes 2021, 9(12), 2177; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9122177 - 2 Dec 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2815

Abstract

Oil and Gas plants consist of a set of heat exchangers, which are used in recovering the waste heat from product streams to preheat the oil. The heat transfer coefficient of exchangers declines considerably during the operation period due to fouling. Fouling in [...] Read more.

Oil and Gas plants consist of a set of heat exchangers, which are used in recovering the waste heat from product streams to preheat the oil. The heat transfer coefficient of exchangers declines considerably during the operation period due to fouling. Fouling in heat exchangers is a complex phenomenon due to the acceleration of many layers of chemical substances across tubes of heat exchangers resulting from chemical reactions and surface roughness. In this paper, the fouling process was determined as a critical failure in the heat exchanger. Failure is an accelerated fouling layer across the heat exchanger tubes, which can be the reason for the clogging of tubes. Hence, a risk assessment was conducted using the Risk-Based Inspection (RBI) approach to estimate the probability of fouling in heat exchangers. The results showed that the RBI approach can be used successfully to predict the suitable time to shut down the plant and conduct the fouling cleaning process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 4576 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Novel Module-Based Design Algorithm for Intensified Membrane Reactor Systems

by Brent A. Bishop and Fernando V. Lima

Processes 2021, 9(12), 2165; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9122165 - 1 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2035

Abstract

The growing interest in intensified process units that improve efficiency by combining several phenomena into one unit, has led to a loss in degrees of freedom when addressing the control scheme of these units. Previous work demonstrated that a novel module-based design approach [...] Read more.

The growing interest in intensified process units that improve efficiency by combining several phenomena into one unit, has led to a loss in degrees of freedom when addressing the control scheme of these units. Previous work demonstrated that a novel module-based design approach to membrane reactors could improve the operability index of membrane reactor systems. This approach sought to decouple the phenomena to regain some degrees of freedom for the control system. However, the computational time to determine such an optimal module design made this class of design problems intractable to solve in a reasonable amount of time. This work proposes a set of design heuristics for a new module-based design approach for membrane reactors. These heuristics are used in combination with a genetic algorithm formulation to produce a novel, two-staged algorithm for the design and control of membrane reactor systems. This algorithm is developed in Python and uses rigorous membrane reactor models built in AVEVA Process Simulation. The proposed algorithm solves the original non-polynomial (NP) complexity problem in polynomial time (P), while still being able to find the optimal designs discovered in previous work through exhaustive methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 5574 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Optimized Organosolv Pretreatment of Biomass Residues Using 2-Methyltetrahydrofuran and n-Butanol

by Egidio Viola, Francesco Zimbardi, Massimo Morgana, Nadia Cerone, Vito Valerio and Assunta Romanelli

Processes 2021, 9(11), 2051; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112051 - 16 Nov 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2515

Abstract

Wheat straw and eucalyptus residues were pretreated in a biphasic system, constituted of butanol (n-butanol) or 2-methyltetrahydrofuran (2M-THF) and aqueous oxalic acid solutions. The pretreatments were carried out in a 300 mL Parr reactor (Autoclave Buchi Limbo-li^®) with a solid load [...] Read more.

Wheat straw and eucalyptus residues were pretreated in a biphasic system, constituted of butanol (n-butanol) or 2-methyltetrahydrofuran (2M-THF) and aqueous oxalic acid solutions. The pretreatments were carried out in a 300 mL Parr reactor (Autoclave Buchi Limbo-li^®) with a solid load of 5 wt.%, the temperature in the range 140–180 °C, oxalic acid load from 0 to 10 wt.% and a duration of 30–90 min. The obtained slurry was then fractionated in three streams: the aqueous phase which contained solubilized hemicellulose, the organic phase which contained the solvated lignin, and the solid residue which contained cellulose. The solid was hydrolyzed using a commercial mix of enzymes to assess cellulose digestibility and glucose production. The pretreatment was optimized to maximize the purity of the cellulose and hemicellulose fractions and the glucose recovery as free sugar. The optimization was done by using an experimental design and response surface methodology. The mass flow details of the four optimized processes were obtained. In terms of biomass fractionation, butanol demonstrated significant advantages over 2M-THF in the same range of process conditions as shown by the recovery yield of free glucose which reached 98% of the theoretical value with butanol but was 67% with 2M-THF. Tests at low temperature and low enzyme loading highlighted the importance of the solvent choice over the operating conditions. 2M-THF showed interesting performances only in the delignification step, with 90% efficiency for the straw. Regarding the use of different feedstock, fractionation and recovery were generally higher for wheat straw than for eucalyptus wood residues. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 4416 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of No-Wait Flowshop Scheduling Problem in Bakery Production with Modified PSO, NEH and SA

by Majharulislam Babor, Julia Senge, Cristina M. Rosell, Dolores Rodrigo and Bernd Hitzmann

Processes 2021, 9(11), 2044; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112044 - 15 Nov 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3327

Abstract

In bakery production, to perform a processing task there might be multiple alternative machines that have the same functionalities. Finding an efficient production schedule is challenging due to the significant nondeterministic polynomial time (NP)-hardness of the problem when the number of products, processing [...] Read more.

In bakery production, to perform a processing task there might be multiple alternative machines that have the same functionalities. Finding an efficient production schedule is challenging due to the significant nondeterministic polynomial time (NP)-hardness of the problem when the number of products, processing tasks, and alternative machines are higher. In addition, many tasks are performed manually as small and medium-size bakeries are not fully automated. Therefore, along with machines, the integration of employees in production planning is essential. This paper presents a hybrid no-wait flowshop scheduling model (NWFSSM) comprising the constraints of common practice in bakeries. The schedule of an existing production line is simulated to examine the model and is optimized by performing particle swarm optimization (PSO), modified particle swarm optimization (MPSO), simulated annealing (SA), and Nawaz-Enscore-Ham (NEH) algorithms. The computational results reveal that the performance of PSO is significantly influenced by the weight distribution of exploration and exploitation in a run time. Due to the modification to the acceleration parameter, MPSO outperforms PSO, SA, and NEH in respect to effectively finding an optimized schedule. The best solution to the real case problem obtained by MPSO shows a reduction of the total idle time (TIDT) of the machines by 12% and makespan by 30%. The result of the optimized schedule indicates that for small- and medium-sized bakery industries, the application of the hybrid NWFSSM along with nature-inspired optimization algorithms can be a powerful tool to make the production system efficient. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 1732 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Synthesis of New 1-Aryl-2-(3,5-dimethylpyrazol-1-yl)ethanone Oxime Ether Derivatives and Investigation of Their Cytotoxic Effects

by Mehmet Abdullah Alagöz, Arzu Karakurt, Ceylan Hepokur, Emine Şalva, Tijen Önkol, Mohammed M. Ghoneim, Mohamed A. Abdelgawad, Ahmed Khames, Hoon Kim and Bijo Mathew

Processes 2021, 9(11), 2019; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112019 - 11 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 7582

Abstract

In this study, 12 new 1-aryl-2-(3,5-dimethylpyrazol-1-yl)ethanone oxime ether derivatives were designed and synthesized to investigate their cytotoxic effects. The in vitro cytotoxic activities of the compounds were evaluated against cervix, colon, breast, glioma, neuroblastoma, and lung cancer cell lines, as well as a [...] Read more.

In this study, 12 new 1-aryl-2-(3,5-dimethylpyrazol-1-yl)ethanone oxime ether derivatives were designed and synthesized to investigate their cytotoxic effects. The in vitro cytotoxic activities of the compounds were evaluated against cervix, colon, breast, glioma, neuroblastoma, and lung cancer cell lines, as well as a healthy cell line using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazo-lium bromide (MTT) assays with 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) as the reference compound. Compound 5f (IC₅₀ = 5.13 µM) was found to be more effective than 5-FU (IC₅₀ = 8.34 µM) in the C6 cancer cell line, and it had no cytotoxic effect on the L929 healthy cell line. Flow cytometry was used to investigate the mechanism of action of compound 5f on the cell cycle of the C6 cell line. The analysis showed that cell death was significantly due to apoptosis. These results indicate that compound 5f induces cell cycle arrest, and may be effective in treating glioma. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 2391 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Case Study of Turbulent Free Jet Flows Issuing from Rectangular Slots on Process Performances and Quality of Hot-Air-Dried Apple

by Virginie Boy, Sahar Mlayah, Marina Giblaine, Yves Lemée and Jean-Louis Lanoisellé

Processes 2021, 9(11), 1900; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9111900 - 25 Oct 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1957

Abstract

This study deals with the improvement in drying process performances and the quality of the final product for industrial equipment in the food industry. Designers need to optimize the design parameters of devices to create synergies between the greater energy efficiency of the [...] Read more.

This study deals with the improvement in drying process performances and the quality of the final product for industrial equipment in the food industry. Designers need to optimize the design parameters of devices to create synergies between the greater energy efficiency of the process and high-quality dried products. Air impingement drying was carried out on apple cylinders at 323 K and with air velocities ranging between 30 and 60 m s⁻¹. The studied drying process presents a particular setup of jets as they are multiple rectangular slot jets issued from triangular nozzles. The effect of four design jet parameters (slot width, nozzle-to-surface height, nozzle-to-nozzle spacing, and airflow) on the drying process performances and the quality of the final product was analyzed and optimized using response surface methodology (RSM). A minimal influence of design jet parameters on the process performances was shown, while an important impact was observed on the quality of dried apple. The slot width and the nozzle-to-nozzle spacing had a significant effect on the textural and functional properties. Predictive models were established and good agreements were found between predictive and observed values. Sorption isotherms were properly modeled by the Guggenheim–Anderson–de Boer (GAB) model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

20 pages, 4674 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Novel Insights on the Sustainable Wet Mode Fractionation of Black Soldier Fly Larvae (Hermetia illucens) into Lipids, Proteins and Chitin

by Harish Karthikeyan Ravi, Côme Guidou, Jérôme Costil, Christophe Trespeuch, Farid Chemat and Maryline Abert Vian

Processes 2021, 9(11), 1888; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9111888 - 22 Oct 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5711

Abstract

The black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) is a sustainable ingredient for feed applications, biofuels, composite materials and other biobased products. Processing BSFL to obtain lipid and protein fractions with enhanced functional properties as a suitable replacement for conventional feed ingredients has gained considerable [...] Read more.

The black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) is a sustainable ingredient for feed applications, biofuels, composite materials and other biobased products. Processing BSFL to obtain lipid and protein fractions with enhanced functional properties as a suitable replacement for conventional feed ingredients has gained considerable momentum. In this regard, a novel and sustainable wet mode fractionation (WMF) scheme for BSFL was explored. Fresh BSFL were steam blanched and pulped to obtain BSFL juice and juice press cake. Subsequent treatment of BSFL juice employing homogenization or enzyme incubation and further centrifugation resulted in the obtention of four different BSFL fractions (Lipid—LF; Cream—CF; Aqueous—AF; and Solid—SF). Total energy consumption for a batch BSFL (500 g) WMF process was 0.321 kWh. Aqueous and solid fractions were the predominant constituents of BSFL juice. Lauric acid (44.52–49.49%) and linoleic acid (19.12–20.12%) were the primary fatty acids present in BSFL lipids. Lipid hydrolysis was observed in lipids belonging to the solid (free fatty acids > triacylglycerides) and cream fractions. Aqueous fraction proteins (ctrl) displayed superior emulsion stability and foam capacity than other treatments. Juice press cake retained 60% of the total chitin content and the rest, 40%, was found in the solid fraction (ctrl). The material distribution of principal constituents in different fractions of the WMF process and amino acid profile was elucidated. Overall, the versatile WMF process proposed in this study involves simple unit operations to obtain functional ingredients from BSFL, which can be further explored by researchers and industry stakeholders. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

30 pages, 4298 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Pairing Experimental and Mathematical Modeling Studies on Fluidized Beds for Enhancement of Models Predictive Quality: A Current Status Overview

by Sebastián Uribe and Muthanna Al-Dahhan

Processes 2021, 9(11), 1863; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9111863 - 20 Oct 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1838

Abstract

Modeling of gas-solid fluidized systems has been a prevailing challenge over the last few decades. With different approaches and implementing different sub-models to capture the essential multiphase and multiscale phenomena in these systems, major advances have been achieved, even though most models are [...] Read more.

Modeling of gas-solid fluidized systems has been a prevailing challenge over the last few decades. With different approaches and implementing different sub-models to capture the essential multiphase and multiscale phenomena in these systems, major advances have been achieved, even though most models are only subject to a practical validation of macroscopic parameters. The current description of fluidized beds through mathematical models relies on the inclusion of vast sub-models, leading to an unquantifiable degree of uncertainty on the models’ applicability for extrapolation studies. Furthermore, each closure and fitting parameter in the model represents a possible source of deviation, and their optimization, hence, becomes another major challenge. The recent advances in measurement techniques can enable us to troubleshoot and optimize the implemented models and sub-models based on local scale measurements. Local multiphase hydrodynamic information obtained by advanced measurement techniques can enable the validation of local predictions and optimization of the coupled sub-models, leading to the development of simplified and highly predictive models. Thus, pairing advanced experimental studies on these systems with insightful modeling approaches is required to advance the shortcoming and enhance the predictive quality of the models. In this work, an overview of the status of modeling and experimental measurement techniques for gas-solid fluidized beds is presented; then, an overview on pairing both experimental and modeling studies to improve the models’ local predictions for fluidized beds is presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

28 pages, 10329 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Thermoeconomic Evaluation and Optimization of Using Different Environmentally Friendly Refrigerant Pairs for a Dual-Evaporator Cascade Refrigeration System

by Kasra Mohammadi and Kody M. Powell

Processes 2021, 9(10), 1855; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9101855 - 19 Oct 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2470

Abstract

Applications of dual-evaporator refrigeration systems have recently gained much attention both in academia and industry due to their multiple benefits. In this study, a comprehensive thermodynamic and economic analysis is conducted to evaluate the potential of using several environmentally friendly refrigerant couples and [...] Read more.

Applications of dual-evaporator refrigeration systems have recently gained much attention both in academia and industry due to their multiple benefits. In this study, a comprehensive thermodynamic and economic analysis is conducted to evaluate the potential of using several environmentally friendly refrigerant couples and identifies the most suitable one yielding the best economic results. To achieve this goal, a detailed parametric study is conducted, and an optimization process is performed using a particle swarm optimization (PSO) approach to minimize the unit production cost of cooling (UPCC) of the cascade refrigeration system. The results showed that among all selected 18 refrigerant pairs and for all ranges of examined operating parameters, the R170-R161 pair and R1150-R1234yf pair are identified as the best and worst pairs, respectively, from both thermodynamic and economic viewpoints. The results also confirm that R170-R161 pair has an improvement over R717-R744, used as a typical refrigerant pair of cascade refrigeration cycles. For a base case analysis, the COP of R170-R161 and R1150-R1234yf pairs is determined as 1.727 and 1.552, respectively, while their UPCC is found to be $0.395/ton-hr and $0.419/ton-hr, respectively, showing the influence of proper selection of refrigerant pairs on the cascade cycle’s performance. Overall, this study offers a useful thermodynamic and economic insight regarding the selection of proper refrigerant pairs for a dual-evaporator cascade vapor compression refrigeration system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

10 pages, 3737 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Effect of Mn and Cu Substitution on the SrFeO₃ Perovskite for Potential Thermochemical Energy Storage Applications

by Esraa Darwish, Moufida Mansouri, Duygu Yilmaz and Henrik Leion

Processes 2021, 9(10), 1817; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9101817 - 13 Oct 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2074

Abstract

Perovskites are well-known oxides for thermochemical energy storage applications (TCES) since they show a great potential for spontaneous O₂ release due to their non-stoichiometry. Transition-metal-based perovskites are particularly promising candidates for TCES owing to their different oxidation states. It is important to [...] Read more.

Perovskites are well-known oxides for thermochemical energy storage applications (TCES) since they show a great potential for spontaneous O₂ release due to their non-stoichiometry. Transition-metal-based perovskites are particularly promising candidates for TCES owing to their different oxidation states. It is important to test the thermal behavior of the perovskites for TCES applications; however, the amount of sample that can be used in thermal analyses is limited. The use of redox cycles in fluidized bed tests can offer a more realistic approach, since a larger amount of sample can be used to test the cyclic behavior of the perovskites. In this study, the oxygen release/consumption behavior of Mn- or Cu-substituted SrFeO₃ (SrFe_0.5M_0.5O₃; M: Mn or Cu) under redox cycling was investigated via thermal analysis and fluidized bed tests. The reaction enthalpies of the perovskites were also calculated via differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Cu substitution in SrFeO₃ increased the performance significantly for both cyclic stability and oxygen release/uptake capacity. Mn substitution also increased the cyclic stability; however, the presence of Mn as a substitute for Fe did not improve the oxygen release/uptake performance of the perovskite. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 2484 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Electrochemical Performance of Aluminum Doped Ni_1−xAl_xCo₂O₄ Hierarchical Nanostructure: Experimental and Theoretical Study

by Deepa Guragain, Romakanta Bhattarai, Jonghyun Choi, Wang Lin, Ram Krishna Gupta, Xiao Shen, Felio A. Perez and Sanjay R. Mishra

Processes 2021, 9(10), 1750; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9101750 - 30 Sep 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2649

Abstract

For electrochemical supercapacitors, nickel cobaltite (NiCo₂O₄) has emerged as a new energy storage material. The electrocapacitive performance of metal oxides is significantly influenced by their morphology and electrical characteristics. The synthesis route can modulate the morphological structure, while their [...] Read more.

For electrochemical supercapacitors, nickel cobaltite (NiCo₂O₄) has emerged as a new energy storage material. The electrocapacitive performance of metal oxides is significantly influenced by their morphology and electrical characteristics. The synthesis route can modulate the morphological structure, while their energy band gaps and defects can vary the electrical properties. In addition to modifying the energy band gap, doping can improve crystal stability and refine grain size, providing much-needed surface area for high specific capacitance. This study evaluates the electrochemical performance of aluminum-doped Ni_1−xAl_xCo₂O₄ (0 ≤ x ≤ 0.8) compounds. The Ni_1−xAl_xCo₂O₄ samples were synthesized through a hydrothermal method by varying the Al to Ni molar ratio. The physical, morphological, and electrochemical properties of Ni_1−xAl_xCo₂O₄ are observed to vary with Al³⁺ content. A morphological change from urchin-like spheres to nanoplate-like structures with a concomitant increase in the surface area, reaching up to 189 m²/g for x = 0.8, was observed with increasing Al³⁺ content in Ni_1−xAl_xCo₂O₄. The electrochemical performance of Ni_1−xAl_xCo₂O₄ as an electrode was assessed in a 3M KOH solution. The high specific capacitance of 512 F/g at a 2 mV/s scan rate, 268 F/g at a current density of 0.5 A/g, and energy density of 12.4 Wh/kg was observed for the x = 0.0 sample, which was reduced upon further Al³⁺ substitution. The as-synthesized Ni_1−xAl_xCo₂O₄ electrode exhibited a maximum energy density of 12.4 W h kg⁻¹ with an outstanding high-power density of approximately 6316.6 W h kg⁻¹ for x = 0.0 and an energy density of 8.7 W h kg⁻¹ with an outstanding high-power density of approximately 6670.9 W h kg⁻¹ for x = 0.6. The capacitance retention of 97% and 108.52% and the Coulombic efficiency of 100% and 99.24% were observed for x = 0.0 and x = 0.8, respectively. First-principles density functional theory (DFT) calculations show that the band-gap energy of Ni_1−xAl_xCo₂O₄ remained largely invariant with the Al³⁺ substitution for low Al³⁺ content. Although the capacitance performance is reduced upon Al³⁺ doping, overall, the Al³⁺ doped Ni_1−xAl_xCo₂O₄ displayed good energy, powder density, and retention performance. Thus, Al³⁺ could be a cost-effective alternative in replacing Ni with the performance trade off. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 3143 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Intelligent and Data-Driven Fault Detection of Photovoltaic Plants

by Siya Yao, Qi Kang, Mengchu Zhou, Abdullah Abusorrah and Yusuf Al-Turki

Processes 2021, 9(10), 1711; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9101711 - 24 Sep 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2599

Abstract

Most photovoltaic (PV) plants conduct operation and maintenance (O&M) by periodical inspection and cleaning. Such O&M is costly and inefficient. It fails to detect system faults in time, thus causing heavy loss. To ensure their operations are at an ideal state, this work [...] Read more.

Most photovoltaic (PV) plants conduct operation and maintenance (O&M) by periodical inspection and cleaning. Such O&M is costly and inefficient. It fails to detect system faults in time, thus causing heavy loss. To ensure their operations are at an ideal state, this work proposes an unsupervised method for intelligent performance evaluation and data-driven fault detection, which enables engineers to check PV panels in time and implement timely maintenance. It classifies monitoring data into three subsets: ideal period A, transition period S, and downturn period B. Based on A and B datasets, we build two non-continuous regression prediction models, which are based on a tree ensemble algorithm and then modified to fit the non-continuous characteristic of PV data. We compare real-time measured power with both upper and lower reference baselines derived from two predictive models. By calculating their threshold ranges, the proposed method achieves the instantaneous performance monitoring of PV power generation and provides failure identification and O&M suggestions to engineers. It has been assessed on a 6.95 MW PV plant. Its evaluation results indicate that it is able to accurately determine different functioning states and detect both direct and indirect faults in a PV system, thereby achieving intelligent data-driven maintenance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 3352 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

A Numerical Procedure for Multivariate Calibration Using Heteroscedastic Principal Components Regression

by Alessandra da Rocha Duailibe Monteiro, Thiago de Sá Feital and José Carlos Pinto

Processes 2021, 9(9), 1686; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9091686 - 21 Sep 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3387

Abstract

Many methods have been developed to allow for consideration of measurement errors during multivariate data analyses. The incorporation of the error structure into the analytical framework, usually described in terms of the covariance matrix of measurement errors, can provide better model estimation and [...] Read more.

Many methods have been developed to allow for consideration of measurement errors during multivariate data analyses. The incorporation of the error structure into the analytical framework, usually described in terms of the covariance matrix of measurement errors, can provide better model estimation and prediction. However, little effort has been made to evaluate the effects of heteroscedastic measurement uncertainties on multivariate analyses when the covariance matrix of measurement errors changes with the measurement conditions. For this reason, the present work describes a new numerical procedure for analyses of heteroscedastic systems (heteroscedastic principal component regression or H-PCR) that takes into consideration the variations of the covariance matrix of measurement fluctuations. In order to illustrate the proposed approach, near infrared (NIR) spectra of xylene and toluene mixtures were measured at different temperatures and stirring velocities and the obtained data were used to build calibration models with different multivariate techniques, including H-PCR. Modeling of available xylene–toluene NIR data revealed that H-PCR can be used successfully for calibration purposes and that the principal directions obtained with the proposed approach can be quite different from the ones calculated through standard PCR, when heteroscedasticity is disregarded explicitly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 6565 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

An Intelligent Process Fault Diagnosis System Based on Neural Networks and Andrews Plot

by Shengkai Wang and Jie Zhang

Processes 2021, 9(9), 1659; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9091659 - 14 Sep 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2471

Abstract

This paper proposes a neural network-based process fault diagnosis system with Andrews plot for information pre-processing to enhance the performance of online process fault diagnosis. By using features extracted from Andrews plot as the inputs to a neural network, as a classifier, the [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a neural network-based process fault diagnosis system with Andrews plot for information pre-processing to enhance the performance of online process fault diagnosis. By using features extracted from Andrews plot as the inputs to a neural network, as a classifier, the diagnosis speed and reliability are improved. A method for determining the important features in the Andrews function is proposed. The proposed fault diagnosis system is applied to a simulated continuous stirred tank reactor process and is compared with two conventional neural network-based fault diagnosis systems: scheme B where the monitored measurements are directly fed to a neural network after scaling and scheme C where the monitored measurements are converted to qualitative trend data before feeding to a neural network. Of all the considered faults, the proposed fault diagnosis system diagnosed the abrupt faults on average 5.45 s and 2.66 s earlier than schemes B and C, respectively and diagnosed the incipient faults on average 13.82 s and 5.09 s earlier than schemes B and C, respectively. The results reveal that Andrews plot method utilized in online process monitoring has a great potential in industrial process monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 5823 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Synthesis of Ti Powder from the Reduction of TiCl₄ with Metal Hydrides in the H₂ Atmosphere: Thermodynamic and Techno-Economic Analyses

by Mohammad Rezaei Ardani, Sheikh Abdul Rezan Sheikh Abdul Hamid, Dominic C. Y. Foo and Abdul Rahman Mohamed

Processes 2021, 9(9), 1567; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9091567 - 1 Sep 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3236

Abstract

Titanium hydride (TiH₂) is one of the basic materials for titanium (Ti) powder metallurgy. A novel method was proposed to produce TiH₂ from the reduction of titanium tetrachloride (TiCl₄) with magnesium hydride (MgH₂) in the hydrogen [...] Read more.

Titanium hydride (TiH₂) is one of the basic materials for titanium (Ti) powder metallurgy. A novel method was proposed to produce TiH₂ from the reduction of titanium tetrachloride (TiCl₄) with magnesium hydride (MgH₂) in the hydrogen (H₂) atmosphere. The primary approach of this process is to produce TiH₂ at a low-temperature range through an efficient and energy-saving process for further titanium powder production. In this study, the thermodynamic assessment and technoeconomic analysis of the process were investigated. The results show that the formation of TiH₂ is feasible at low temperatures, and the molar ratio between TiCl₄ and metal hydride as a reductant material has a critical role in its formation. Moreover, it was found that the yield of TiH₂ is slightly higher when CaH₂ is used as a reductant agent. The calculated equilibrium composition diagrams show that when the molar ratio between TiCl₄ and metal hydrides is greater than the stoichiometric amount, the TiCl₃ phase also forms. With a further increase in this ratio to greater than 4, no TiH₂ was formed, and TiCl₃ was the dominant product. Furthermore, the technoeconomic study revealed that the highest return on investment was achieved for the production scale of 5 t/batch of Ti powder production, with a payback time of 2.54 years. The analysis shows that the application of metal hydrides for TiH₂ production from TiCl₄ is technically feasible and economically viable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 2403 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Characterization of Acoustic Cavitation Bubbles with Respect to the Bubble Size Distribution at Equilibrium

by Kaouther Kerboua, Oualid Hamdaoui and Abdulaziz Alghyamah

Processes 2021, 9(9), 1546; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9091546 - 30 Aug 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2333

Abstract

In addition to bubble number density, bubble size distribution is an important population parameter governing the activity of acoustic cavitation bubbles. In the present paper, an iterative numerical method for equilibrium size distribution is proposed and combined to a model for bubble counting, [...] Read more.

In addition to bubble number density, bubble size distribution is an important population parameter governing the activity of acoustic cavitation bubbles. In the present paper, an iterative numerical method for equilibrium size distribution is proposed and combined to a model for bubble counting, in order to approach the number density within a population of acoustic cavitation bubbles of inhomogeneous sizing, hence the sonochemical activity of the inhomogeneous population based on discretization into homogenous groups. The composition of the inhomogeneous population is analyzed based on cavitation dynamics and shape stability at 300 kHz and 0.761 W/cm² within the ambient radii interval ranging from 1 to 5 µm. Unstable oscillation is observed starting from a radius of 2.5 µm. Results are presented in terms of number probability, number density, and volume probability within the population of acoustic cavitation bubbles. The most probable group having an equilibrium radius of 3 µm demonstrated a probability in terms of number density of 27%. In terms of contribution to the void, the sub-population of 4 µm plays a major role with a fraction of 24%. Comparisons are also performed with the homogenous population case both in terms of number density of bubbles and sonochemical production of

{HO}^{•}, {HO}_{2}^{•},

and

H^{•}

under an oxygen atmosphere. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 1681 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Liquid Hot Water Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass at Lab and Pilot Scale

by Jose M. (Chema) Jimenez-Gutierrez, Rob A. J. Verlinden, Peter C. van der Meer, Luuk A. M. van der Wielen and Adrie J. J. Straathof

Processes 2021, 9(9), 1518; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9091518 - 27 Aug 2021

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 3936

Abstract

Liquid hot water pretreatment is considered to be a promising method for increasing biomass digestibility due to the moderate operational conditions without chemical additions. A necessary step towards the scalability of this pretreatment process is performing pilot plant trials. Upscaling was evaluated with [...] Read more.

Liquid hot water pretreatment is considered to be a promising method for increasing biomass digestibility due to the moderate operational conditions without chemical additions. A necessary step towards the scalability of this pretreatment process is performing pilot plant trials. Upscaling was evaluated with a scaling factor of 500, by using 50 mL in the laboratory and 25 L in a pilot plant batch reactor. Pretreatment times were varied from 30 to 240 min, and temperatures used were 180–188 °C, while applying similar heating profiles at both scales. The initial mass fraction of poplar wood chips ranged from 10% to 16%. Liquid hot water pretreatment at laboratory and pilot scale led to analogous results. The acetic acid analysis of the liquid and solid fractions obtained after pretreatment indicated that complete deacetylation of poplar biomass can be achieved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 7981 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Model Discrimination for Hydrogen Peroxide Consumption towards γ-Alumina in Homogeneous Liquid and Heterogeneous Liquid-Liquid Systems

by Daniele Di Menno Di Bucchianico, Wander Y. Perez-Sena, Valeria Casson Moreno, Tapio Salmi and Sébastien Leveneur

Processes 2021, 9(8), 1476; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9081476 - 23 Aug 2021

Viewed by 2280

Abstract

The use of hydrogen peroxide as an oxidizing agent becomes increasingly important in chemistry. The example of vegetable oil epoxidation is an excellent illustration of the potential of such an agent. This reaction is traditionally performed by Prileschajew oxidation, i.e., by the in [...] Read more.

The use of hydrogen peroxide as an oxidizing agent becomes increasingly important in chemistry. The example of vegetable oil epoxidation is an excellent illustration of the potential of such an agent. This reaction is traditionally performed by Prileschajew oxidation, i.e., by the in situ production of percarboxylic acids. Drawbacks of this approach are side reactions of ring-opening and thermal runaway reactions due to percarboxylic acid instability. One way to overcome this issue is the direct epoxidation by hydrogen peroxide by using γ-alumina. However, the reaction mechanism is not elucidated: does hydrogen peroxide decompose with alumina or oxidize the hydroxyl groups at the surface? The kinetics of hydrogen peroxide consumption with alumina in homogeneous liquid and heterogeneous liquid-liquid systems was investigated to reply to this question. Bayesian inference was used to determine the most probable models. The results obtained led us to conclude that the oxidation mechanism is the most credible for the heterogeneous liquid-liquid system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 4082 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Ultrasound-Assisted Cold Pasteurization in Liquid or SC-CO₂

by Anna Abramova, Vladimir Abramov, Vadim Bayazitov, Roman Nikonov, Igor Fedulov, Livio Stevanato and Giancarlo Cravotto

Processes 2021, 9(8), 1457; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9081457 - 21 Aug 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2180

Abstract

Various types of chemical and physical protocols are used, thermal treatment in particular, to increase the quality of bulk food products (for example, dates or some sort of nuts) and extend shelf life, and combinations of methods are frequently used to achieve the [...] Read more.

Various types of chemical and physical protocols are used, thermal treatment in particular, to increase the quality of bulk food products (for example, dates or some sort of nuts) and extend shelf life, and combinations of methods are frequently used to achieve the best results. However, the use of these processing methods is not always the best option to preserve the initial taste and appearance of food products. For instance, a product may lose its initial natural appearance and acquire different flavors due to chemical transformations that occur at certain temperatures or when the products are treated with chemicals. Non-thermal treatment methods are called “cold” pasteurization. This is a set of advanced techniques that are based on physical and chemical effects that do not result in the structural food-product transformations caused by heating. We have developed and tested a new technique for efficient food-product processing and cold pasteurization in an ultrasonic field under pressure in an atmosphere of supercritical or subcritical carbon dioxide. A laboratory-scale unit that was designed and built for this purpose has experimentally proven the feasibility of this process and demonstrated high efficiency in suppressing pathogenic flora. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 3209 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Optimization of Hydrolysis-Acidogenesis Phase of Swine Manure for Biogas Production Using Two-Stage Anaerobic Fermentation

by Chiu-Yue Lin, Wai Siong Chai, Chyi-How Lay, Chin-Chao Chen, Chun-Yi Lee and Pau Loke Show

Processes 2021, 9(8), 1324; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9081324 - 29 Jul 2021

Cited by 75 | Viewed by 5401

Abstract

The traditional pig manure wastewater treatment in Taiwan has been low in methane production efficiency due to unstable influent concentration, wastewater volume, and quality. Two-stage anaerobic systems, in contrast, have the advantage of buffering the organic loading rate in the first stage (hydrolysis-acidogenesis [...] Read more.

The traditional pig manure wastewater treatment in Taiwan has been low in methane production efficiency due to unstable influent concentration, wastewater volume, and quality. Two-stage anaerobic systems, in contrast, have the advantage of buffering the organic loading rate in the first stage (hydrolysis-acidogenesis phase), allowing a more constant feeding rate to the second stage (methanogenesis phase). Response surface methodology was applied to optimize the operational period (0.5–2.0 d) and initial operational pH (4–10) for hydrolysis and acidogenesis of the swine manure (total solid 5.3%) at 35 °C in batch operation mode. A methanogenesis verification experiment with the optimal condition of operational period 1.5 d and pH 6.5 using batch operation resulted in peak volatile acid production 7 g COD/L, methane production rate (MPR) 0.3 L-CH₄/L-d, and methane yield (MY) 92 mL-CH₄/g-CODre (chemical oxygen demand removed). Moreover, a two-stage system including a hydrolysis-acidogenesis reactor with the optimal operating condition and a methanogenesis reactor provided an average MPR 163 mL/L-d and MY 38 mL/g volatile solids, which values are 60% higher than those of a single-stage system; both systems have similar dominant methane-producing species of Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes with each having around 30%–40%. The advantages of a two-stage anaerobic fermentation system in treating swine manure for biogas production are obvious. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 6984 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Manganese-Rich Pokeweed Biochar for Highly Efficient Adsorption of Heavy Metals from Wastewater: Performance, Mechanisms, and Potential Risk Analysis

by Zhe Yang, Wenyong Hu, Bin Yao, Liangchen Shen, Feifeng Jiang, Yaoyu Zhou and Avelino Núñez-Delgado

Processes 2021, 9(7), 1209; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9071209 - 14 Jul 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2329

Abstract

A novel manganese-rich pokeweed biochar was prepared at different temperatures from manganese-rich pokeweed plants collected at manganese tailings, resulting in materials identified as BC300, BC400, and BC500. The synthetized biochar materials were investigated as regards their potential for removing Cu²⁺, Pb [...] Read more.

A novel manganese-rich pokeweed biochar was prepared at different temperatures from manganese-rich pokeweed plants collected at manganese tailings, resulting in materials identified as BC300, BC400, and BC500. The synthetized biochar materials were investigated as regards their potential for removing Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Cd²⁺, specifically in terms of adsorption performances, adsorption kinetics, adsorption isotherms, and potential environmental pollution risk. The results showed that the sorption process fitted well to the pseudo-second-order kinetic and Langmuir models, and the maximum adsorption capacities of BC500 were 246, 326, and 310 mg·g⁻¹ for Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Cd²⁺ respectively. The physicochemical characteristics of the biochars, and the adsorption mechanisms, were revealed by using scanning electron microscopy-energy spectrometer, elemental analysis, Brunauer–Emmett–Teller techniques, X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The sorption mechanism of these three heavy metal ions onto biochars included ion exchange, electrostatic adsorption, chemical adsorption, and precipitation. Besides, the potential pollution risk of manganese-rich pokeweed biochars was significantly reduced after pyrolysis. Therefore, it is feasible to transform manganese-rich pokeweed biomass into manganese-rich pokeweed biochar with potential for heavy metals removal, showing high adsorption capacity, recyclability, and low environmental pollution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 9487 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Integrated Process Re-Design with Operation in the Digital Era: Illustration through an Industrial Case Study

by Maria P. Marcos, José Luis Pitarch and Cesar de Prada

Processes 2021, 9(7), 1203; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9071203 - 12 Jul 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1863

Abstract

This work discusses what should be the desirable path and correct tools for the optimal re-design and operation of processes in the Industry 4.0 framework, as illustrated in a challenging case study corresponding to a complex network of evaporation plants in a viscose-fiber [...] Read more.

This work discusses what should be the desirable path and correct tools for the optimal re-design and operation of processes in the Industry 4.0 framework, as illustrated in a challenging case study corresponding to a complex network of evaporation plants in a viscose-fiber factory. The goal is to integrate optimal design, to improve the existing cooling systems, together with the optimal operation of the whole network, balancing the initial investment with the potentially achievable savings. A rigorous mathematical model for such optimization purpose has been built. The model explicitly considers different structural alternatives as a superstructure for the incorporation of new equipment into the network. The uncertainty associated to future operating conditions is also considered by using a two-stage stochastic formulation. Furthermore, the model is also the base from which a deterministic real-time optimization (RTO) builds upon to support the daily management of the future network operation. The RTO tool suggests the allocation of different products to evaporation plants, the distribution of the cooling water and the suitable number of heat pumps to switch on for optimal economic operation. Design and operation problems are formulated and solved via mixed-integer non-linear programming and the results have been tested with historical plant data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 1858 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Chemical Composition and Low-Temperature Fluidity Properties of Jet Fuels

by Alirio Benavides, Pedro Benjumea, Farid B. Cortés and Marco A. Ruiz

Processes 2021, 9(7), 1184; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9071184 - 7 Jul 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5836

Abstract

The physicochemical properties of petroleum-derived jet fuels mainly depend on their chemical composition, which can vary from sample to sample as a result of the diversity of the crude diet processed by the refinery. Jet fuels are exposed to very low temperatures both [...] Read more.

The physicochemical properties of petroleum-derived jet fuels mainly depend on their chemical composition, which can vary from sample to sample as a result of the diversity of the crude diet processed by the refinery. Jet fuels are exposed to very low temperatures both at altitude and on the ground in places subject to extreme climates and must be able to maintain their fluidity at these low temperatures otherwise the flow of fuel to turbine engines will be reduced or even stopped. In this work, an experimental evaluation of the effect of chemical composition on low-temperature fluidity properties of jet fuels (freezing point, crystallization onset temperature and viscosity at −20 °C) was carried out. Initially, a methodology based on gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC–MS) was adapted to determine the composition of 70 samples of Jet A1 and Jet A fuels. This methodology allowed quantifying the content, in weight percentage, of five main families of hydrocarbons: paraffinic, naphthenic, aromatic, naphthalene derivatives, and tetralin- and indane-derived compounds. Fuel components were also grouped into 11 classes depending on structural characteristics and the number of carbon atoms in the compound. The latter compositional approach allowed obtaining more precise model regressions for predicting the composition–property dependence and identifying individual components or hydrocarbon classes contributing to increased or decreased property values. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 10209 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Implementation of the Digital Sales Channel in the Coatings Industry

by Eva Krhač Andrašec, Benjamin Urh, Marjan Senegačnik and Tomaž Kern

Processes 2021, 9(7), 1168; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9071168 - 5 Jul 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2827

Abstract

The development process in the coatings industry can be shortened by digital transformation, and its costs can be reduced using a technical enabler. However, formulators need up-to-date and comprehensive data on existing and potential ingredients to develop the formulation. We were curious about [...] Read more.

The development process in the coatings industry can be shortened by digital transformation, and its costs can be reduced using a technical enabler. However, formulators need up-to-date and comprehensive data on existing and potential ingredients to develop the formulation. We were curious about how to supply formulators with data. The idea was that suppliers of ingredients provide data using the “common enabling technology”. We hypothesize that direct data entry compensates suppliers because they can shorten the sales process and increase sales. We used a survey to select key sales channels in the industry. Detailed process models were designed using structured interviews. We analyzed models using structural and operational indicators. Finally, we formed a new digital sales process and verified it. The results show that the digitally formatted sales process can be shortened by up to 32%. Simultaneously, more potential customers can be accessed using the common technology. Existing sales channels would not be closed down. Nevertheless, the digital sales channel is expected to prove its worth over time and gradually increase its share. The suppliers of ingredients can thus avoid a radical process transformation and the immediate integration of additional information technology into the company information system in such an evolutionary way. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 4024 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

g-C₃N₄ Sensitized by an Indoline Dye for Photocatalytic H₂ Evolution

by Yihang Chen, Yanfei Liu and Zhen Ma

Processes 2021, 9(6), 1055; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9061055 - 17 Jun 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2291

Abstract

Protonated g-C₃N₄ (pCN) formed by treating bulk g-C₃N₄ with an aqueous HCl solution was modified with D149 dye, i.e., 5-[[4[4-(2,2-diphenylethenyl) phenyl]-1,2,3,3a,4,8b-hexahydrocyclopent[b]indol-7-yl] methylene]-2-(3-ethyl-4-oxo-2-thioxo-5-thiazolidinylidene)-4-oxo-thiazolidin-2-ylidenerhodanine, for photocatalytic water splitting (using Pt as a co-catalyst). The D149/pCN-Pt composite showed a much [...] Read more.

Protonated g-C₃N₄ (pCN) formed by treating bulk g-C₃N₄ with an aqueous HCl solution was modified with D149 dye, i.e., 5-[[4[4-(2,2-diphenylethenyl) phenyl]-1,2,3,3a,4,8b-hexahydrocyclopent[b]indol-7-yl] methylene]-2-(3-ethyl-4-oxo-2-thioxo-5-thiazolidinylidene)-4-oxo-thiazolidin-2-ylidenerhodanine, for photocatalytic water splitting (using Pt as a co-catalyst). The D149/pCN-Pt composite showed a much higher rate (2138.2 µmol·h⁻¹·g⁻¹) of H₂ production than pCN-Pt (657.0 µmol·h⁻¹·g⁻¹). Through relevant characterization, the significantly high activity of D149/pCN-Pt was linked to improved absorption of visible light, accelerated electron transfer, and more efficient separation of charge carriers. The presence of both D149 and Pt was found to be important for these factors. A mechanism was proposed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 5570 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Real-Time Industrial Process Fault Diagnosis Based on Time Delayed Mutual Information Analysis

by Cheng Ji, Fangyuan Ma, Jianhong Wang, Jingde Wang and Wei Sun

Processes 2021, 9(6), 1027; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9061027 - 11 Jun 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3209

Abstract

Causal relations among variables may change significantly due to different control strategies and fault types. Off line-based knowledge is not adequate for fault diagnosis, and existing causal models obtained from data driven methods are mostly based on historical data only. However, variable correlation [...] Read more.

Causal relations among variables may change significantly due to different control strategies and fault types. Off line-based knowledge is not adequate for fault diagnosis, and existing causal models obtained from data driven methods are mostly based on historical data only. However, variable correlation would not remain identical, and could be very different under certain industrial operation conditions. To deal with this problem, a fault diagnosis framework is proposed based on information solely extracted from process data. By this method, mutual information (MI) between each pair of variables is first calculated to obtain thresholds using historical data, as variable correlation under normal conditions is mostly contributed by random noises, which is often neglected in existing causal analysis models. Once a process deviation is detected, each pair of variables with mutual information beyond these thresholds are further investigated by time delayed mutual information (TDMI) analysis using current data, so as to determine the causal logic between them, which is represented as fault propagation paths, can be tracked all the way back to the root cause. The proposed method is first applied to a simulated process and the Tennessee Eastman process. The results show that the difference in variable correlation under diverse operation or control response conditions can be captured in real time, and fault propagation path can be objectively identified, together with the root cause. Then, the method has been successfully applied to a whole year data in an industrial process, which proves the feasibility of industrial application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 6359 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Steam Quality on Extra-Heavy Crude Oil Upgrading and Oil Recovery Assisted with PdO and NiO-Functionalized Al₂O₃ Nanoparticles

by Luisana Cardona, Oscar E. Medina, Santiago Céspedes, Sergio H. Lopera, Farid B. Cortés and Camilo A. Franco

Processes 2021, 9(6), 1009; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9061009 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3551

Abstract

This work focuses on evaluating the effect of the steam quality on the upgrading and recovering extra-heavy crude oil in the presence and absence of two nanofluids. The nanofluids AlNi1 and AlNi1Pd1 consist of 500 mg·L⁻¹ of alumina doped with 1.0% in [...] Read more.

This work focuses on evaluating the effect of the steam quality on the upgrading and recovering extra-heavy crude oil in the presence and absence of two nanofluids. The nanofluids AlNi1 and AlNi1Pd1 consist of 500 mg·L⁻¹ of alumina doped with 1.0% in mass fraction of Ni (AlNi1) and alumina doped with 1.0% in mass fraction of Ni and Pd (AlNi1Pd1), respectively, and 1000 mg·L⁻¹ of tween 80 surfactant. Displacement tests are done in different stages, including (i) basic characterization, (ii) waterflooding, (iii) steam injection at 0.5 quality, (iv) steam injection at 1.0 quality, (v) batch injection of nanofluids, and (vi) steam injection after nanofluid injection at 0.5 and 1.0 qualities. The steam injection is realized at 210 °C, the reservoir temperature is fixed at 80 °C, and pore and overburden pressure at 1.03 MPa (150 psi) and 5.51 MPa (800 psi), respectively. After the steam injection at 0.5 and 1.0 quality, oil recovery is increased 3.0% and 7.0%, respectively, regarding the waterflooding stage, and no significant upgrade in crude oil is observed. Then, during the steam injection with nanoparticles, the AlNi1 and AlNi1Pd1 increase the oil recovery by 20.0% and 13.0% at 0.5 steam quality. Meanwhile, when steam is injected at 1.0 quality for both nanoparticles evaluated, no incremental oil is produced. The crude oil is highly upgraded for the AlNi1Pd1 system, reducing oil viscosity 99%, increasing the American Petroleum Institute (API)° from 6.9° to 13.3°, and reducing asphaltene content 50% at 0.5 quality. It is expected that this work will eventually help understand the appropriate conditions in which nanoparticles should be injected in a steam injection process to improve its efficiency in terms of oil recovery and crude oil quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 2547 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Accuracy Improvement of the ¹⁴C Method Applied in Biomass and Coal Co-Firing Power Stations

by Yuxing Tang, Zhongyang Luo and Chunjiang Yu

Processes 2021, 9(6), 994; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9060994 - 4 Jun 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2072

Abstract

The ¹⁴C method is an approach used to determine the proportion of carbon derived from biomass and fossil fuel in the co-fired flue gas. Its accuracy is mainly limited by the deviations between the applied biomass fuels’ ¹⁴C activity reference value [...] Read more.

The ¹⁴C method is an approach used to determine the proportion of carbon derived from biomass and fossil fuel in the co-fired flue gas. Its accuracy is mainly limited by the deviations between the applied biomass fuels’ ¹⁴C activity reference value and virtual value. To enrich the theoretical basis of the ¹⁴C method when applied to a Chinese biomass and coal co-firing power station, this study performed field sampling experiments and established a new evaluation method based on domestic literature. Unlike previous studies, this study revealed that the ¹⁴C activity of biomass far away from fossil carbon sources was 0.7–1.3 pMC lower than the local atmosphere. The ¹⁴C activity laws between tree rings and barks, specifically between eucalyptus bark and poplar bark were different, due to different growth models and different bark regeneration cycles, respectively. According to the test results and renewal conclusions, this study proposed a reasonable idea for constructing the prediction equation of referential biomass fuels’ ¹⁴C activity. Following this equation, the biomass fuels’ ¹⁴C activities of biomass direct-fired power stations at different Chinese cities were obtained. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 18879 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Pressure Drops and Energy Consumption Model of Low-Scale Closed Circuit Cooling Towers

by Francisco Táboas and Francisco Vázquez

Processes 2021, 9(6), 974; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9060974 - 31 May 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4373

Abstract

Heat transfer models of closed-circuit cooling towers are available in the literature. Using these models, traditional parametric studies show how the inlet conditions of the streams influence the cooling capacity. This type of analysis could yield to suboptimal operation of the cooling tower [...] Read more.

Heat transfer models of closed-circuit cooling towers are available in the literature. Using these models, traditional parametric studies show how the inlet conditions of the streams influence the cooling capacity. This type of analysis could yield to suboptimal operation of the cooling tower since optimal heat and mass transfer processes do not necessarily imply an energy efficient cooling device. The optimal design of closed-circuit cooling towers should include any evaluation of pressure loses associated with the three streams involved. Air-water biphasic pressure drop across tube bundles in such devices was not sufficiently investigated in literature. The proposed literature correlations depend on geometry parameters, and these parameters are not known. In this work, an experimental device has been designed and constructed to study pressure drops, and an energy consumption model has been developed. The pressure drop was successfully calculated modifying a general correlation proposed for two phase flow across tube bundles. The energy model results show that the optimum was obtained where the intube water Reynolds number is near the transition region, and at air velocities near 1 m/s. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 3696 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Insights into Equilibrium and Adsorption Rate of Phenol on Activated Carbon Pellets Derived from Cigarette Butts

by Nahum A. Medellín-Castillo, Raúl Ocampo-Pérez, Angélica Forgionny, Gladis J. Labrada-Delgado, Ana I. Zárate-Guzmán, Sergio A. Cruz-Briano and Rogelio Flores-Ramírez

Processes 2021, 9(6), 934; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9060934 - 26 May 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2929

Abstract

In the present work, the preparation of activated carbon pellets from cigarette butts by thermal treatment was evaluated. The morphological, textural, topological, and surface chemical properties were studied by SEM-EDX, N₂ adsorption, Raman, and FTIR spectroscopy. For adsorption assays, activated carbon was [...] Read more.

In the present work, the preparation of activated carbon pellets from cigarette butts by thermal treatment was evaluated. The morphological, textural, topological, and surface chemical properties were studied by SEM-EDX, N₂ adsorption, Raman, and FTIR spectroscopy. For adsorption assays, activated carbon was tested for the adsorption of phenol as a model molecule at different solution pH, temperature, and type of water. In addition, leaching tests before and after carbonization were conducted to evaluate the lixiviation of ions present in the solid. The results revealed a microporous material, composed of cylindrical fibers (thickness of 13 µm) with a microporous area of 713 m²/g and narrow and uniform slit-shaped pores (0.4–0.8 nm). The surface chemistry analysis evidenced the presence of oxygenated groups (carboxylic, esters, and phenolics). Activated carbon leaching tests indicated that the concentrations of the leached ions did not exceed the maximum permissible limit for drinking water. Phenol adsorption revealed an exothermic process with a maximum adsorption capacity of 272 mg/g at 10 °C. Finally, it was confirmed that phenol diffusion was drastically affected by hindered phenomena due to the similarity in the molecular size of phenol and the average size of micropores, and as a result an effective diffusion coefficient between 6.10 × 10⁻⁰ and 5.50 × 10⁻¹² cm²/s and a maximum tortuosity value of 3.3 were obtained. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 1543 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Solubility Temperature Dependence of Bio-Based Levulinic Acid, Furfural, and Hydroxymethylfurfural in Water, Nonpolar, Polar Aprotic and Protic Solvents

by Ana Jakob, Miha Grilc, Janvit Teržan and Blaž Likozar

Processes 2021, 9(6), 924; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9060924 - 24 May 2021

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 5063

Abstract

Bio-based levulinic acid (LA), furfural (FF), and hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) represent key chemical intermediates when biorefining biomass resources, i.e., either cellulose, glucose, hexoses, etc. (HMF/LA), or hemicellulose, xylose, and pentose (FF). Despite their importance, their online in situ detection by process analytical technologies (PATs), [...] Read more.

Bio-based levulinic acid (LA), furfural (FF), and hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) represent key chemical intermediates when biorefining biomass resources, i.e., either cellulose, glucose, hexoses, etc. (HMF/LA), or hemicellulose, xylose, and pentose (FF). Despite their importance, their online in situ detection by process analytical technologies (PATs), solubility, and its temperature dependence are seldom available. Herein, we report their solubility and temperature dependence by examining n-hexane, cyclohexane, benzene, toluene, 1,4-dioxane, diethyl ether, dichloromethane, tetrahydrofuran, ethyl acetate, acetone, dimethylformamide, acetonitrile, dimethyl sulfoxide, formic acid, n-butanol, n-propanol, ethanol, methanol, and water. These solvents were selected as they are the most common nonpolar, polar aprotic, and polar protic solvents. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was applied as a fast, accurate, and sensitive method to the examined solutions or mixtures. The latter also enables operando monitoring of the investigated compounds in pressurized reactors. Selected temperatures investigated were chosen, as they are within typical operating ranges. The calculated thermodynamic data are vital for designing biorefinery process intensification, e.g., reaction yield optimization by selective compound extraction. In addition to extracting, upstream or downstream unit operations that can benefit from the results include dissolution, crystallization, and precipitation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

14 pages, 366 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Optimization of Methanol Synthesis under Forced Periodic Operation

by Carsten Seidel, Daliborka Nikolić, Matthias Felischak, Menka Petkovska, Andreas Seidel-Morgenstern and Achim Kienle

Processes 2021, 9(5), 872; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9050872 - 15 May 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3071

Abstract

Traditionally, methanol is produced in large amounts from synthesis gas with heterogeneous Cu/ZnO/Al₂O₃ catalysts under steady state conditions. In this paper, the potential of alternative forced periodic operation modes is studied using numerical optimization. The focus is a well-mixed isothermal [...] Read more.

Traditionally, methanol is produced in large amounts from synthesis gas with heterogeneous Cu/ZnO/Al₂O₃ catalysts under steady state conditions. In this paper, the potential of alternative forced periodic operation modes is studied using numerical optimization. The focus is a well-mixed isothermal reactor with two periodic inputs, namely, CO concentration in the feed and total feed flow rate. Exploiting a detailed kinetic model which also describes the dynamics of the catalyst, a sequential NLP optimization approach is applied to compare optimal steady state solutions with optimal periodic regimes. Periodic solutions are calculated using dynamic optimization with a periodicity constraint. The NLP optimization is embedded in a multi-objective optimization framework to optimize the process with respect to two objective functions and generate the corresponding Pareto fronts. The first objective is the methanol outlet flow rate. The second objective is the methanol yield based on the total carbon in the feed. Additional constraints arising from the complex methanol reaction and the practical limitations are introduced step by step. The results show that significant improvements for both objective functions are possible through periodic forcing of the two inputs considered here. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 9181 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Heat Transfer and Hydrodynamics in Stirred Tanks with Liquid-Solid Flow Studied by CFD–DEM Method

by Xiaotong Luo, Jiachuan Yu, Bo Wang and Jingtao Wang

Processes 2021, 9(5), 849; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9050849 - 12 May 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5024

Abstract

The heat transfer and hydrodynamics of particle flows in stirred tanks are investigated numerically in this paper by using a coupled CFD–DEM method combined with a standard k-e turbulence model. Particle–fluid and particle–particle interactions, and heat transfer processes are considered in this model. [...] Read more.

The heat transfer and hydrodynamics of particle flows in stirred tanks are investigated numerically in this paper by using a coupled CFD–DEM method combined with a standard k-e turbulence model. Particle–fluid and particle–particle interactions, and heat transfer processes are considered in this model. The numerical method is validated by comparing the calculated results of our model to experimental results of the thermal convection of gas-particle flows in a fluidized bed published in the literature. This coupling model of computational fluid dynamics and discrete element (CFD–DEM) method, which could calculate the particle behaviors and individual particle temperature clearly, has been applied for the first time to the study of liquid-solid flows in stirred tanks with convective heat transfers. This paper reports the effect of particles on the temperature field in stirred tanks. The effects on the multiphase flow convective heat transfer of stirred tanks without and with baffles as well as various heights from the bottom are investigated. Temperature range of the multiphase flow is from 340 K to 350 K. The height of the blade is varied from about one-sixth to one-third of the overall height of the stirred tank. The numerical results show that decreasing the blade height and equipping baffles could enhance the heat transfer of the stirred tank. The calculated temperature field that takes into account the effects of particles are more instructive for the actual processes involving solid phases. This paper provides an effective method and is helpful for readers who have interests in the multiphase flows involving heat transfers in complex systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 4614 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Tuning Metal–Support Interactions on Ni/Al₂O₃ Catalysts to Improve Catalytic Activity and Stability for Dry Reforming of Methane

by Lulu He, Yuanhang Ren, Bin Yue, Shik Chi Edman Tsang and Heyong He

Processes 2021, 9(4), 706; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9040706 - 16 Apr 2021

Cited by 49 | Viewed by 5482

Abstract

Ni-based catalysts supported on alumina derived from the pseudo-boehmite prepared by the impregnation method were employed for catalytic dry reforming of methane reaction at the temperature of 550–750 °C. The effect of calcination temperature on physicochemical properties such as the Ni dispersion, reduction [...] Read more.

Ni-based catalysts supported on alumina derived from the pseudo-boehmite prepared by the impregnation method were employed for catalytic dry reforming of methane reaction at the temperature of 550–750 °C. The effect of calcination temperature on physicochemical properties such as the Ni dispersion, reduction degree, nickel crystallite sizes, and metal–support interaction of the catalysts was investigated. The characterization results show that increasing the catalyst calcination temperature leads to the formation of nickel-alumina spinel, which enhances the metal–support interaction and increases the reduction temperature. The nickel nanoparticle size decreases and the effective dispersion increases with the increasing calcination temperature from 450 °C to 750 °C due to the formation of nickel aluminate. The catalyst calcined at 750 °C exhibits the highest CH₄ and CO₂ conversion owing to the small Ni⁰ active sites and high Ni dispersion. In a 200 h stability test in dry reforming of methane at 700 °C, the Ni/Al₂O₃-750 catalyst exhibits excellent catalytic stability and anti-coking ability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 11013 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Estimating Breakup Frequencies in Industrial Emulsification Devices: The Challenge of Inferring Local Frequencies from Global Methods

by Andreas Håkansson

Processes 2021, 9(4), 645; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9040645 - 7 Apr 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1913

Abstract

Experimental methods to study the breakup frequency in industrial devices are increasingly important. Since industrial production-scale devices are often inaccessible to single-drop experiments, breakup frequencies for these devices can only be studied with “global methods”; i.e., breakup frequency estimated from analyzing emulsification-experiment data. [...] Read more.

Experimental methods to study the breakup frequency in industrial devices are increasingly important. Since industrial production-scale devices are often inaccessible to single-drop experiments, breakup frequencies for these devices can only be studied with “global methods”; i.e., breakup frequency estimated from analyzing emulsification-experiment data. However, how much can be said about the local breakup frequencies (e.g., needed in modelling) from these global estimates? This question is discussed based on insights from a numerical validation procedure where set local frequencies are compared to global estimates. It is concluded that the global methods provide a valid estimate of local frequencies as long as the dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy is fairly homogenous throughout the device (although a residence-time-correction, suggested in this contribution, is needed as long as the flow is not uniform in the device). For the more realistic case of an inhomogeneous breakup frequency, the global estimate underestimates the local frequency (at the volume-averaged dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy). However, the relative error between local frequencies and global estimates is approximately constant when comparing between conditions. This suggest that the global methods are still valuable for studying how local breakup frequencies scale across operating conditions, geometries and fluid properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

9 pages, 1621 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Evaluation of the Engineering Properties of Powdered Activated Carbon Amendments in Porous Asphalt Pavement

by Shengyi Huang and Chenju Liang

Processes 2021, 9(4), 582; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9040582 - 26 Mar 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2292

Abstract

Porous asphalt pavement (PAP) with a high drainage capacity was modified with powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition to produce permeable reactive pavement (PRP), which may exhibit the potential to reduce environmental non-point source (NPS) pollution. The experimental design mixtures used to produce and [...] Read more.

Porous asphalt pavement (PAP) with a high drainage capacity was modified with powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition to produce permeable reactive pavement (PRP), which may exhibit the potential to reduce environmental non-point source (NPS) pollution. The experimental design mixtures used to produce and test the PRP incorporated with PAC (named PRP-PACs) were conducted as follows: first, the PACs were initially tested to determine their feasibility as an additive in PAP; second, different amounts of PAC were added during the preparation of PAP to produce PRP-PAC, and the unregulated and regulated physical characteristics for the mechanical performance of PRP-PACs were examined to ensure that they meet the regulatory specifications. Third, the aqueous contaminants, namely benzene, toluene, ethyl-benzene, and xylene (BTEX), column adsorption tests were preliminarily conducted to demonstrate their adsorption capacities compared to traditional PAP. The compositions of 0.8% and 1.5% PAC (by wt.) (PRP-PAC08 and PRP-PAC15) met all the regulated specifications. As compared to PAP, PRP-PAC08 exhibited higher BTEX adsorption capacities than PAP, which were 47%, 49%, 29% and 2%. PRP-PAC08 showed both superior physical properties and adsorption performance than PAP and may be recommended as an engineering application that reduces the potential for NPS contamination of air, soil, groundwater, and surface water. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 3293 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

CO₂-Tolerant Oxygen Permeation Membranes Containing Transition Metals as Sintering Aids with High Oxygen Permeability

by Xiaopeng Wang, Lei Shi, Yanhao Huang, Lingyong Zeng, Mebrouka Boubeche, Dongcheng Li and Huixia Luo

Processes 2021, 9(3), 528; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9030528 - 15 Mar 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2342

Abstract

Chemical doping of ceramic oxides may provide a possible route for realizing high-efficient oxygen transport membranes. Herein, we present a study of the previously unreported dual-phase mixed-conducting oxygen-permeable membranes with the compositions of 60 wt.% Ce_0.85Pr_0.1M_0.05O_2-δ [...] Read more.

Chemical doping of ceramic oxides may provide a possible route for realizing high-efficient oxygen transport membranes. Herein, we present a study of the previously unreported dual-phase mixed-conducting oxygen-permeable membranes with the compositions of 60 wt.% Ce_0.85Pr_0.1M_0.05O_2-δ-40 wt.%Pr_0.6Sr_0.4Fe_0.8Al_0.2O_3-δ (M = Fe, Co, Ni, Cu) (CPM-PSFA) adding sintering aids, which is expected to not only improve the electronic conductivity of fluorite phase, but also reduce the sintering temperature and improve the sintering properties of the membranes. X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) results indicate that the CPM-PSFA contain only the fluorite and perovskite two phases, implying that they are successfully prepared with a modified Pechini method. Backscattered scanning electron microscopy (BSEM) results further confirm that two phases are evenly distributed, and the membranes are very dense after sintering at 1275 °C for 5 h, which is much lower than that (1450 °C, 5 h) of the composite 60 wt.%Ce_0.9Pr_0.1O_2-δ-40 wt.%Pr_0.6Sr_0.4Fe_0.8Al_0.2O_3-δ (CP-PSFA) without sintering aids. The results of oxygen permeability test demonstrate that the oxygen permeation flux through the CPCu-PSFA and CPCo-PSFA is higher than that of undoped CP-PSFA and can maintain stable oxygen permeability for a long time under pure CO₂ operation condition. Our results imply that these composite membranes with high oxygen permeability and stability provide potential candidates for the application in oxygen separation, solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC), and oxy-fuel combustion based on carbon dioxide capture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 532 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Process Performance Verification Using Viability Theory

by Majid Ghaniee Zarch, Vicenç Puig, Javad Poshtan and Mahdi Aliyari Shoorehdeli

Processes 2021, 9(3), 482; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9030482 - 8 Mar 2021

Viewed by 1842

Abstract

The development of efficient methods for process performance verification has drawn a lot of attention in the research community. Viability theory is a mathematical tool to identify the trajectories of a dynamical system which remains in a constraint set. In this paper, viability [...] Read more.

The development of efficient methods for process performance verification has drawn a lot of attention in the research community. Viability theory is a mathematical tool to identify the trajectories of a dynamical system which remains in a constraint set. In this paper, viability theory is investigated for this purpose in the case of nonlinear processes that can be represented in Linear Parameter Varying (LPV) form. In particular, verification algorithms based on the use of invariance and viability kernels and capture basin are proposed. The difficulty with the application of this theory is the computation of these sets. A Lagrangian method has been used to approximate these sets. Because of simplicity and efficient computations, zonotopes are adopted for set representation. Two new sets called Safe Work Area (SWA) and Required Performance (RP) are defined and an algorithm is proposed to use these concepts for the verification purpose. Finally, two application examples based on well-known case studies, a two-tank system and PH neutralization plant, are provided to show the effectiveness of the proposed method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 4849 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vapor Phase Modification for Selective Enrichment of Grafted Styrene/Acrylonitrile onto Carbon Nanotubes Via ATRP

by Maryam Azadbakht, Elnaz Esmizadeh, Ali Vahidifar, Tizazu H. Mekonnen and Mehdi Salami-Kalajahi

Processes 2021, 9(3), 459; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9030459 - 3 Mar 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2537

Abstract

Nitric acid vapor phase oxidation of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) was proposed as a promising technique to fabricate poly styrene-co-acrylonitrile (SAN)-grafted-CNTs via atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). The in-situ ATRP grafting approach was successfully employed to graft polystyrene (PS), SAN and polyacrylonitrile (PAN), [...] Read more.

Nitric acid vapor phase oxidation of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) was proposed as a promising technique to fabricate poly styrene-co-acrylonitrile (SAN)-grafted-CNTs via atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). The in-situ ATRP grafting approach was successfully employed to graft polystyrene (PS), SAN and polyacrylonitrile (PAN), onto the convex surfaces of pristine MWCNTs (PCNT) and acid-functionalized MWCNTs (FCNT). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H-NMR), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) confirmed the effectiveness of the modification via the ATRP grafting approach. The molar composition of acrylonitrile in the synthesized copolymer on the surface of CNTs for an FCNTs was calculated to be about 80% and 67.5% by ¹H-NMR and TGA respectively, whereas the value is lower for PCNTs. Morphological studies showed that SAN-grafted FCNTs exhibit rougher surface morphology compared to the SAN-grafted PCNTs. Moreover, the higher diameter of the FCNTs indicated the higher polymer content, which was coated onto CNTs functionalized by vapor-phase oxidation. Therefore, the vapor phase oxidation strategy employed in this study could be utilized as a general method to prepare CNTs which can serve as an ATRP macroinitiator for the fabrication of various polymer grafted CNTs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 4833 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Dynamic and Statistical Operability of an Experimental Batch Process

by Willy R. de Araujo, Fernando V. Lima and Heleno Bispo

Processes 2021, 9(3), 441; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9030441 - 28 Feb 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2530

Abstract

The operability approach has been traditionally applied to measure the ability of a continuous process to achieve desired specifications, given physical or design restrictions and considering expected disturbances at steady state. This paper introduces a novel dynamic operability analysis for batch processes based [...] Read more.

The operability approach has been traditionally applied to measure the ability of a continuous process to achieve desired specifications, given physical or design restrictions and considering expected disturbances at steady state. This paper introduces a novel dynamic operability analysis for batch processes based on classical operability concepts. In this analysis, all sets and statistical region delimitations are quantified using mathematical operations involving polytopes at every time step. A statistical operability analysis centered on multivariate correlations is employed for the first time to evaluate desired output sets during transition that serve as references to be followed to achieve the final process specifications. A dynamic design space for a batch process is, thus, generated through this analysis process and can be used in practice to guide process operation. A probabilistic expected disturbance set is also introduced, whereby the disturbances are described by pseudorandom variables and disturbance scenarios other than worst-case scenarios are considered, as is done in traditional operability methods. A case study corresponding to a pilot batch unit is used to illustrate the developed methods and to build a process digital twin to generate large datasets by running an automated digital experimentation strategy. As the primary data source of the analysis is built in a time-series database, the developed framework can be fully integrated into a plant information management system (PIMS) and an Industry 4.0 infrastructure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 1287 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Coupling Microbial Electrolysis Cell and Activated Carbon Biofilter for Source-Separated Greywater Treatment

by Mayank Dhadwal, Yang Liu and Bipro Ranjan Dhar

Processes 2021, 9(2), 281; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9020281 - 2 Feb 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2529

Abstract

Reclamation and reuse of wastewater are increasingly viewed as a pragmatic tool for water conservation. Greywater, which includes water from baths, washing machines, dishwashers, and kitchen sinks, is a dilute wastewater stream, making it an attractive stream for extraction of non-potable water. However, [...] Read more.

Reclamation and reuse of wastewater are increasingly viewed as a pragmatic tool for water conservation. Greywater, which includes water from baths, washing machines, dishwashers, and kitchen sinks, is a dilute wastewater stream, making it an attractive stream for extraction of non-potable water. However, most previous studies primarily focused on passively aerated biological and physicochemical treatment processes for greywater treatment. Here, we investigated an integrated process of a microbial electrochemical cell (MEC) followed by granular activated carbon (GAC) biofilter for greywater treatment. The integrated system could achieve 99.3% removal of total chemical oxygen demand (TCOD) and 98.7% removal of the anionic surfactants (linear alkylbenzene sulphonates) from synthetic greywater at a total hydraulic residence time (HRT) of 25 h (1 day for MEC and 1 h for GAC biofilter). For one-day HRT, the maximum peak volumetric current density from MEC was 0.65 A/m³, which was comparable to that achieved at four-day HRT (0.66 A/m³). The adsorption by GAC was identified as a key mechanism for the removal of organics and surfactants. In addition, recirculation of liquid within the GAC biofilter was identified as a critical factor in achieving high-rate treatment. Although results indicated that GAC biofilter could be a standalone process for greywater, MEC can provide an opportunity for potential energy recovery from greywater. However, further studies should focus on developing high-rate MECs with higher energy recovery potential for practical operation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

16 pages, 4344 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Extra-Heavy Crude Oil Viscosity Reduction Using and Reusing Magnetic Copper Ferrite Nanospheres

by Lucía Mateus, Esteban A. Taborda, Carlos Moreno-Castilla, María Victoria López-Ramón, Camilo A. Franco and Farid B. Cortés

Processes 2021, 9(1), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9010175 - 19 Jan 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4744

Abstract

The main objective of this study is the synthesis, use, and reuse of magnetic copper ferrite nanospheres (CFNS) for extra-heavy oil viscosity reduction. The CFNS were synthesized using a solvothermal method resulting in mean particle size of 150 nm. Interactions of CFNS with [...] Read more.

The main objective of this study is the synthesis, use, and reuse of magnetic copper ferrite nanospheres (CFNS) for extra-heavy oil viscosity reduction. The CFNS were synthesized using a solvothermal method resulting in mean particle size of 150 nm. Interactions of CFNS with the crude oil were evaluated through asphaltene adsorption isotherms, as well as static and dynamic rheology measurements for two cycles at 25 °C. Adsorption and desorption experiments corroborated that most of the asphaltenes adsorbed can be removed for nanoparticle reuse. During the rheology tests, nanoparticles were evaluated in the first cycle at different concentrations from 300 to 1500 mg/L, leading to the highest degree of viscosity reduction of 18% at 500 mg/L. SiO₂ nanoparticles were evaluated for comparison issues, obtaining similar results regarding the viscosity reduction. After measurements, the CFNS were removed with a magnet, washed with toluene, and further dried for the second cycle of viscosity reduction. Rheology tests were performed for a second time at a fixed concentration of 500 mg/L, and slight differences were observed regarding the first cycle. Finally, changes in the extra-heavy oil microstructure upon CFNS addition were observed according to the significant decrease in elastic and viscous moduli. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 3549 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Impacts of Low-Carbon Targets and Hydrogen Production Alternatives on Energy Supply System Transition: An Infrastructure-Based Optimization Approach and a Case Study of China

by Tianxiao Li, Pei Liu and Zheng Li

Processes 2021, 9(1), 160; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9010160 - 15 Jan 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3099

Abstract

Low-carbon transition pathways oriented from different transition targets would result in a huge variation of energy system deployment and transition costs. Hydrogen is widely considered as an imperative energy carrier to reach carbon neutral targets. However, hydrogen production, either from non-fossil power or [...] Read more.

Low-carbon transition pathways oriented from different transition targets would result in a huge variation of energy system deployment and transition costs. Hydrogen is widely considered as an imperative energy carrier to reach carbon neutral targets. However, hydrogen production, either from non-fossil power or fossil fuels with carbon capture, is closely linked with an energy supply system and has great impacts on its structure. Identifying an economically affordable transition pathway is attractive, and energy infrastructure is critical due to massive investment and long life-span. In this paper, a multi-regional, multi-period, and infrastructure-based model is proposed to quantify energy supply system transition costs with different low-carbon targets and hydrogen production alternatives, and China is taken as a case study. Results show that, fulfilling 2-degree and 1.5-degree temperature increase targets would result in 84% and 151% increases in system transition costs, 114% and 246% increases in infrastructure investment, and 211% and 339% increases in stranded investment, compared to fulfilling stated policy targets. Producing hydrogen from coal would be economical when carbon capture and sequestration cost is lower than 437 yuan per tonne, and reduce infrastructure investment and stranded coal investment by 16% and 35% respectively, than producing hydrogen from renewable power. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 4230 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Nano-Intermediate of Magnetite Nanoparticles Supported on Activated Carbon from Spent Coffee Grounds for Treatment of Wastewater from Oil Industry and Energy Production

by Laura Acosta, Dahiana Galeano-Caro, Oscar E. Medina, Farid B. Cortés and Camilo A. Franco

Processes 2021, 9(1), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9010063 - 30 Dec 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4331

Abstract

This work focused on evaluating the adsorptive removal of crude oil using a nano-intermediate based on magnetite nanoparticles supported on activated carbon synthesized from spent coffee grounds and the subsequent catalytic oil decomposition to recover by-products and regenerate the support material. The magnetite [...] Read more.

This work focused on evaluating the adsorptive removal of crude oil using a nano-intermediate based on magnetite nanoparticles supported on activated carbon synthesized from spent coffee grounds and the subsequent catalytic oil decomposition to recover by-products and regenerate the support material. The magnetite nanoparticles were synthesized by the co-precipitation method and were used as active phases on prepared activated carbon. The amount of crude oil adsorbed was determined by adsorption isotherms. In addition, dynamic tests were performed on a packed bed to evaluate the efficiency of the removal process. Thermogravimetric analysis and mass spectrometry were used to evaluate the catalytic powder and the quantification of by-products. Contrasting the results with commercial carbon, the one synthesized from the coffee residue showed a greater affinity for the oil. Likewise, the adsorption capacity increased by doping activated carbon with magnetite nanoparticles, obtaining an efficiency greater than 10%. The crude oil decomposition was carried out successfully by thermal cracking, obtaining a 100% removal. The gas produced after decomposition contains light hydrocarbons such as C₂H₄ and CH₄ and shows a decrease in polluting species such as CO and CO₂, leading to greater environmental sustainability of the process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 2921 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

The Supervision of Dough Fermentation Using Image Analysis Complemented by a Continuous Discrete Extended Kalman Filter

by Olivier Paquet-Durand, Viktoria Zettel, Abdolrahim Yousefi-Darani and Bernd Hitzmann

Processes 2020, 8(12), 1669; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8121669 - 17 Dec 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2458

Abstract

Dough fermentation is an important step during the preparation of fermented baking goods. For the supervision of dough fermentation, a continuous-discrete extended Kalman filter was applied, which uses an image analysis system as the measurement. By estimation a fixed number of gas bubbles [...] Read more.

Dough fermentation is an important step during the preparation of fermented baking goods. For the supervision of dough fermentation, a continuous-discrete extended Kalman filter was applied, which uses an image analysis system as the measurement. By estimation a fixed number of gas bubbles inside the dough, the radius of an average bubble was determined. A mathematical dough model was used by the extended Kalman filter to estimate the radius of the average bubble, the CO₂ concentration of the non-gas dough phase and the number of CO₂ molecules in the average bubble. During a fermentation of 50 min, the extended Kalman filter estimated that the average radius increased from 50 µm to 127 µm, the CO₂ concentration in the non-gas dough increased to 23 mol/m³, and the CO₂ amount in the bubble increased from 0.1 × 10⁻¹⁰ to 4 × 10⁻¹⁰ mol. Also, the specific CO₂ production rate was estimated to be in the range from 1.5 × 10⁻³ to more than 4 × 10⁻³ mol·m³/kg/s. The advantages of an extended Kalman filter for the supervision of the dough fermentation process are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 3329 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Trimeric SARS-CoV-2 Spike Proteins Produced from CHO Cells in Bioreactors Are High-Quality Antigens

by Paco Pino, Joeri Kint, Divor Kiseljak, Valentina Agnolon, Giampietro Corradin, Andrey V. Kajava, Paolo Rovero, Ronald Dijkman, Gerco den Hartog, Jason S. McLellan, Patrick O. Byrne, Maria J. Wurm and Florian M. Wurm

Processes 2020, 8(12), 1539; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8121539 - 25 Nov 2020

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 10380

Abstract

The spike protein of the pandemic human corona virus is essential for its entry into human cells. In fact, most neutralizing antibodies against Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Corona Virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) are directed against the Virus-surface exposed spike protein, making it the antigen [...] Read more.

The spike protein of the pandemic human corona virus is essential for its entry into human cells. In fact, most neutralizing antibodies against Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Corona Virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) are directed against the Virus-surface exposed spike protein, making it the antigen of choice for use in vaccines and diagnostic tests. In the current pandemic context, global demand for spike proteins has rapidly increased and could exceed hundreds of grams to kilograms annually. Coronavirus spikes are large heavily glycosylated homo-trimeric complexes, with inherent instability. The poor manufacturability now threatens the availability of these proteins for vaccines and diagnostic tests. Here, we outline scalable, Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) compliant, and chemically defined processes for the production of two cell-secreted stabilized forms of the trimeric spike proteins (Wuhan and D614G variant). The processes are chemically defined and based on clonal suspension-CHO cell populations and on protein purification via a two-step scalable downstream process. The trimeric conformation was confirmed using electron microscopy and HPLC analysis. Binding to susceptible cells was shown using a virus-inhibition assay. The diagnostic sensitivity and specificity for detection of serum SARS-CoV-2-specific-immunoglobulin molecules was found to exceed that of spike fragments (Spike subunit-1, S1 and Receptor Binding Domain, RBD). The process described here will enable production of sufficient high-quality trimeric spike protein to meet the global demand for SARS-CoV-2 diagnostic tests and potentially vaccines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 2778 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Digital Twinning Process for Stirred Tank Reactors/Separation Unit Operations through Tandem Experimental/Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Simulations

by Blaž Oblak, Simon Babnik, Vivian Erklavec-Zajec, Blaž Likozar and Andrej Pohar

Processes 2020, 8(11), 1511; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8111511 - 21 Nov 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5143

Abstract

Computational fluid dynamics simulations (CFD) were used to evaluate mixing in baffled and unbaffled vessels. The Reynolds-averaged Navier−Stokes k–ε model was implemented in OpenFOAM for obtaining the fluid flow field. The 95% homogenization times were determined by tracer tests. Experimental tests [...] Read more.

Computational fluid dynamics simulations (CFD) were used to evaluate mixing in baffled and unbaffled vessels. The Reynolds-averaged Navier−Stokes k–ε model was implemented in OpenFOAM for obtaining the fluid flow field. The 95% homogenization times were determined by tracer tests. Experimental tests were conducted by injecting sodium chloride into the vessel and measuring the conductivity with two conductivity probes, while the simulations replicated the experimental conditions with the calculation of the transport of species. It was found that the geometry of the system had a great effect on the mixing time, since the irregular flow distribution, which can be obtained with baffles, can lead to local stagnation zones, which will increase the time needed to achieve the homogenization of the solute. It was also found that measuring local, pointwise concentrations can lead to a high underestimation of the global mixing time required for the homogenization of the entire vessel. Dissolution of sucrose was also studied experimentally and by mathematical modeling. The dissolution of sucrose was found to be kinetically limited and a very good agreement was found between the experiments and the modeling approach. The extent of the applicability of CFD simulations was evaluated for enabling rapid process design via simulations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

7 pages, 1385 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Acoustic Oscillations on Continuous-Flow Water Disinfection

by Anna V. Abramova, Vadim M. Bayazitov, Igor S. Fedulov, Roman V. Nikonov, Vladimir G. Sister and Giancarlo Cravotto

Processes 2020, 8(10), 1259; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8101259 - 7 Oct 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1985

Abstract

Water disinfection and potential sterilization in continuous flow was achieved in a hybrid reactor with a broadband hydrodynamic emitter combined with ultrasonic vibrations at different frequencies and with excess pressure. Such a combination showed synergistic effects by increasing the acoustic power in the [...] Read more.

Water disinfection and potential sterilization in continuous flow was achieved in a hybrid reactor with a broadband hydrodynamic emitter combined with ultrasonic vibrations at different frequencies and with excess pressure. Such a combination showed synergistic effects by increasing the acoustic power in the reactor vortex flow. The present combined physical treatment, compared with sonication alone, could increase microorganism inactivation by 15–20%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 9146 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Computational Optimization of Porous Structures for Electrochemical Processes

by Nicole Vorhauer-Huget, Haashir Altaf, Robert Dürr, Evangelos Tsotsas and Tanja Vidaković-Koch

Processes 2020, 8(10), 1205; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8101205 - 23 Sep 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3680

Abstract

Porous structures are naturally involved in electrochemical processes. The specific architectures of the available porous materials, as well as their physical properties, crucially affect their applications, e.g., their use in fuel cells, batteries, or electrolysers. A key point is the correlation of transport [...] Read more.

Porous structures are naturally involved in electrochemical processes. The specific architectures of the available porous materials, as well as their physical properties, crucially affect their applications, e.g., their use in fuel cells, batteries, or electrolysers. A key point is the correlation of transport properties (mass, heat, and charges) in the spatially—and in certain cases also temporally—distributed pore structure. In this paper, we use mathematical modeling to investigate the impact of the pore structure on the distribution of wetting and non-wetting phases in porous transport layers used in water electrolysis. We present and discuss the potential of pore network models and an upscaling strategy for the simulation of the saturation of the pore space with liquid and gas, as well as the computation of the relative permeabilities and oxygen dissolution and diffusion. It is studied how a change of structure, i.e., the spatial grading of the pore size distribution and porosity, change the transport properties. Several situations are investigated, including a vertical gradient ranging from small to large pore sizes and vice versa, as well as a dual-porosity network. The simulation results indicate that the specific porous structure has a significant impact on the spatial distribution of species and their respective relative permeabilities. In more detail, it is found that the continuous increase of pore sizes from the catalyst layer side towards the water inlet interface yields the best transport properties among the investigated pore networks. This outcome could be useful for the development of grading strategies, specifically for material optimization for improved transport kinetics in water electrolyser applications and for electrochemical processes in general. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

31 pages, 4733 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

MILP Formulation for Solving and Initializing MINLP Problems Applied to Retrofit and Synthesis of Hydrogen Networks

by Patrícia R. da Silva, Marcelo E. Aragão, Jorge O. Trierweiler and Luciane F. Trierweiler

Processes 2020, 8(9), 1102; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8091102 - 4 Sep 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3668

Abstract

The demand for hydrogen in refineries is growing due to its importance as a sulfur capture element. Therefore, hydrogen management is critical for fulfilling demands as efficiently as possible. Through mathematical modeling, hydrogen network management can be better performed. Cost-efficient Mixed-Integer Linear Programming [...] Read more.

The demand for hydrogen in refineries is growing due to its importance as a sulfur capture element. Therefore, hydrogen management is critical for fulfilling demands as efficiently as possible. Through mathematical modeling, hydrogen network management can be better performed. Cost-efficient Mixed-Integer Linear Programming (MILP) and Mixed-Integer Nonlinear Programming (MINLP) optimization models for (re)designing were proposed and implemented in GAMS with two case studies. Linear programming has the limitation of no stream mixing allowed; therefore, to overcome this limitation, an algorithm-based procedure called the Virtual Compressor Approach was proposed. Based on the MILP optimal solution obtained, the streams and compressors were merged. As a result, the number of compressors was reduced, along with the inherent investment costs. An operational cost reduction of more than 28% (example 1) and 26% (example 2) was obtained with a linear model. The optimal MILP solution after rearranging compressors was then provided as a good starting point to the MINLP. The operating costs were decreased by more than 31% (example 1) and 32% (example 2). Most of the cost reduction was obtained only with the usage of the MILP model. Besides, a higher level of cost reduction was only obtained when the linear model was used as the starting point. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

6 pages, 226 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Highly-Efficient Caffeine Recovery from Green Coffee Beans under Ultrasound-Assisted SC–CO₂ Extraction

by Janet Menzio, Arianna Binello, Alessandro Barge and Giancarlo Cravotto

Processes 2020, 8(9), 1062; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8091062 - 1 Sep 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 6203

Abstract

Natural caffeine from decaffeination processes is widely used by pharmaceutical, cosmetic and soft-drink industries. Supercritical CO₂ extraction (SFE–CO₂) is extensively exploited industrially, and one of its most representative applications is the decaffeination process, which is a greener alternative to the [...] Read more.

Natural caffeine from decaffeination processes is widely used by pharmaceutical, cosmetic and soft-drink industries. Supercritical CO₂ extraction (SFE–CO₂) is extensively exploited industrially, and one of its most representative applications is the decaffeination process, which is a greener alternative to the use of organic solvents. Despite its advantages, extraction kinetics are rather slow near the CO₂ critical point, meaning that improvements are highly sought after. The effect exerted by a combination of SFE–CO₂ and ultrasound (US–SFE–CO₂) has been investigated in this preliminary study, with the aim of improving mass transfer and selectivity in the extraction of caffeine from green coffee beans. This hybrid technology can considerably enhance the extraction efficiency and cut down process time. Further studies are in progress to demonstrate the complete decaffeination of green coffee beans of different types and origins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

15 pages, 2307 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Residue Char Derived from Microwave-Assisted Pyrolysis of Sludge as Adsorbent for the Removal of Methylene Blue from Aqueous Solutions

by Gong Cheng, Yazhuo Li, Liming Sun, Siyi Luo, George Z. Kyzas and Jie Fu

Processes 2020, 8(8), 979; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8080979 - 13 Aug 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2812

Abstract

Residue char is the main by-product of the microwave-assisted pyrolysis of activated sludge and it has a high content of fixed carbon and porous structure, but little is known about its character as an absorbent. In this study, residue char of activated sludge [...] Read more.

Residue char is the main by-product of the microwave-assisted pyrolysis of activated sludge and it has a high content of fixed carbon and porous structure, but little is known about its character as an absorbent. In this study, residue char of activated sludge with microwave-assisted pyrolysis was used as an adsorbent to absorb methylene blue. The effects of pyrolysis temperature, pyrolysis holding time, contact time, and adsorption temperature on the adsorption ability of residue char were investigated. Kinetics, isotherm, and thermodynamic models were also included to study the adsorption behavior. The results showed that the optimal pyrolysis condition was 15 min and 603 °C, and the adsorption capacity reached up to 80.01 mg/g. The kinetics analyses indicated the adsorption behavior followed the pseudo-second-order kinetics model and the adsorption process was mainly due to chemical interaction. The adsorption isotherm was described by Freundlich model and thus, its process was multimolecular layer adsorption. Furthermore, the thermodynamics parameters (ΔG⁰, ΔH⁰, and ΔS⁰) at different temperatures indicated that the nature of the adsorption process was endothermic and spontaneous. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 2161 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Adaptive Feedback Control for a Pasteurization Process

by Emil D.J. Rasmussen, Massimiliano Errico and Stefania Tronci

Processes 2020, 8(8), 930; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8080930 - 2 Aug 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 8086

Abstract

The milk pasteurization process is nonlinear in nature, and for this reason, the application of linear control algorithms does not guarantee the obtainment of the required performance in every condition. The problem is here addressed by proposing an adaptive algorithm, which was obtained [...] Read more.

The milk pasteurization process is nonlinear in nature, and for this reason, the application of linear control algorithms does not guarantee the obtainment of the required performance in every condition. The problem is here addressed by proposing an adaptive algorithm, which was obtained by starting from an observer-based control approach. The main result is the obtainment of a simple PI-like controller structure, where the control parameters depend on the state of the system and are adapted online. The proposed algorithm was designed and applied on a simulated process, where the temperature dependence of the milk’s physical properties was considered. The control strategy was tested by simulating different situations, particularly when time-varying disturbances entered the system. The use of the adaptive rule reduces the variance generally introduced by the PI or PID controller. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

31 pages, 7941 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Discrete Output Regulator Design for the Linearized Saint–Venant–Exner Model

by Guilherme Ozorio Cassol and Stevan Dubljevic

Processes 2020, 8(8), 915; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8080915 - 1 Aug 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2123

Abstract

This manuscript addresses the regulator design in the discrete-time setting for the unstable linearized Saint–Venant–Exner model, which describes the dynamics of a sediment-filled water canal. The proposed regulator ensures the closed-loop stability and proper tracking of polynomial and periodic reference signals using output [...] Read more.

This manuscript addresses the regulator design in the discrete-time setting for the unstable linearized Saint–Venant–Exner model, which describes the dynamics of a sediment-filled water canal. The proposed regulator ensures the closed-loop stability and proper tracking of polynomial and periodic reference signals using output feedback in a sample-data setting. To design this regulator, the system discrete representation is achieved by the application of the structure-preserving Cayley-Tustin time discretization and the direct relation with the regulator in the continuous-time setting is shown. The regulator design in the continuous-time setting is developed using the backstepping methodology ensuring the closed-loop stability and the observer design, while the Sylvester equations are solved to achieve proper tracking. Finally, the numerical simulation results are presented to show the performance of the regulator. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 570 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Modular Model Predictive Control upon an Existing Controller

by Wai Hou Lio, John Anthony Rossiter and Bryn Llywelyn Jones

Processes 2020, 8(7), 855; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8070855 - 16 Jul 2020

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3118

Abstract

The availability of predictions of future system inputs has motivated research into preview control to improve set-point tracking and disturbance rejection beyond that achievable via conventional feedback control. The design of preview controllers, typically based upon model predictive control (MPC) for its constraint [...] Read more.

The availability of predictions of future system inputs has motivated research into preview control to improve set-point tracking and disturbance rejection beyond that achievable via conventional feedback control. The design of preview controllers, typically based upon model predictive control (MPC) for its constraint handling properties, is often performed in a monolithic nature, coupling the feedback and feed-forward problems. This can create problems, such as: (i) an additional feedback loop is introduced by MPC, which alters the closed-loop dynamics of the existing feedback compensator, potentially resulting in a deterioration of the nominal sensitivities and robustness properties of an existing closed-loop and (ii) the default preview action from MPC can be poor, degrading the original feedback control performance. In our previous work, the former problem is addressed by presenting a modular MPC design on top of a given output-feedback controller, which retains the nominal closed-loop robustness and frequency-domain properties of the latter, despite the addition of the preview design. In this paper, we address the second problem; the preview compensator design in the modular MPC formulation. Specifically, we derive the key conditions that ensure, under a given closed-loop tuning, the preview compensator within the modular MPC formulation is systematic and well-designed in a sense that the preview control actions complement the existing feedback control law rather than opposing it. In addition, we also derive some important results, showing that the modular MPC can be implemented in a cascade over any given linear controllers and the proposed conditions hold, regardless of the observer design for the modular MPC. The key benefit of the modular MPC is that the preview control with constraint handling can be implemented without replacing the existing feedback controller. This is illustrated through some numerical examples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 2215 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Solubilization of Phenols and Sugars from Raspberry Extrudate by Hydrothermal Treatments

by Juan Cubero-Cardoso, Ángeles Trujillo-Reyes, Patricia Marín-Ayllón, Guillermo Rodríguez-Gutiérrez, Denys Villa-Gomez, Antonio Serrano, Rafael Borja and Fernando G. Fermoso

Processes 2020, 8(7), 842; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8070842 - 15 Jul 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2622

Abstract

Raspberry extrudate residue has bioactive compounds in its matrix that are considered high-added value compounds. In the present study, different hydrothermal treatments were carried out using different operational systems, temperatures and times to solubilize raspberry extrudate in order to obtain these bioactive compounds [...] Read more.

Raspberry extrudate residue has bioactive compounds in its matrix that are considered high-added value compounds. In the present study, different hydrothermal treatments were carried out using different operational systems, temperatures and times to solubilize raspberry extrudate in order to obtain these bioactive compounds (i.e., sugars and phenolic compounds). Hydrothermal treatment conditions were assessed in the range of 60 °C to 210 °C, with increments of 30 °C. The hydrothermal treatment at 210 °C for 5 min with direct steam and decompression was the most efficient process based on the solubilization of sugars and phenols, as well as on the antioxidant capacity of the products recovered in the liquid phase after treatment. Under these conditions, the concentration of soluble phenols was more than double the concentration in the raw raspberry extrudate, with more than 5000 mg phenols per kilogram of raspberry extrudate. The obtained values demonstrate the potential of applying this treatment for recovering valuable bioactive compounds from raspberry extrudate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 9134 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prediction of Cutting Material Durability by T = f(vc) Dependence for Turning Processes

by Jozef Zajac, Jan Duplak, Darina Duplakova, Peter Cizmar, Igor Olexa and Anton Bittner

Processes 2020, 8(7), 789; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8070789 - 6 Jul 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3189

Abstract

This article is focused on the prediction of cutting material durability by Taylor’s model. To create predictive models of the durability of cutting materials in the turning process, tools made of high-speed steel, sintered carbide without coating and with Titanium nitride (TiN) coating, [...] Read more.

This article is focused on the prediction of cutting material durability by Taylor’s model. To create predictive models of the durability of cutting materials in the turning process, tools made of high-speed steel, sintered carbide without coating and with Titanium nitride (TiN) coating, cutting ceramics without coating and with TiN coating were applied. The experimental part was performed on reference material C45 using conventional lathe—type of machine SU50A and computer numerical control machine—CNC lathe Leadwell T-5 in accordance with International Organization for Standardization—ISO 3685. Implementation of the least-squares method and processing of regression analysis made predictions of cutting tool behaviour in the turning process. Using the method of regression analysis, a correlation index of 93.5% was obtained, indicating the functional dependence of the predicted relationship. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

8 pages, 1413 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Compartment Model of Mixing in a Bubble Trap and Its Impact on Chromatographic Separations

by Jürgen Beck, William Heymann, Eric von Lieres and Rainer Hahn

Processes 2020, 8(7), 780; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8070780 - 3 Jul 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4124

Abstract

Chromatography equipment includes hold-up volumes that are external to the packed bed and usually not considered in the development of chromatography models. These volumes can substantially contribute to band-broadening in the system and deteriorate the predicted performance. We selected a bubble trap of [...] Read more.

Chromatography equipment includes hold-up volumes that are external to the packed bed and usually not considered in the development of chromatography models. These volumes can substantially contribute to band-broadening in the system and deteriorate the predicted performance. We selected a bubble trap of a pilot scale chromatography system as an example for a hold-up volume with a non-standard mixing behavior. In a worst-case scenario, the bubble trap is not properly flushed before elution, thus causing the significant band-broadening of the elution peak. We showed that the mixing of buffers with different densities in the bubble trap device can be accurately modeled using a simple compartment model. The model was calibrated at a wide range of flow rates and salt concentrations. The simulations were performed using the open-source software CADET, and all scripts and data are published with this manuscript. The results illustrate the importance of including external holdup volumes in chromatography modeling. The band-broadening effect of tubing, pumps, valves, detectors, frits, or any other zones with non-standard mixing behavior can be considered in very similar ways. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

28 pages, 1144 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Generic Model Control Applied to E. coli BL21(DE3) Fed-Batch Cultures

by Merouane Abadli, Laurent Dewasme, Sihem Tebbani, Didier Dumur and Alain Vande Wouwer

Processes 2020, 8(7), 772; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8070772 - 1 Jul 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4310

Abstract

This work proposes a Generic Model Control (GMC) strategy to regulate biomass growth in fed-batch cultures of Escherichia coli BL21(DE3). The control law is established using a previously validated mechanistic model based on the overflow metabolism paradigm. A model reduction is carried out [...] Read more.

This work proposes a Generic Model Control (GMC) strategy to regulate biomass growth in fed-batch cultures of Escherichia coli BL21(DE3). The control law is established using a previously validated mechanistic model based on the overflow metabolism paradigm. A model reduction is carried out to prevent the controller from relying on kinetics, which may be uncertain. In order to limit the controller to the use of a single measurement, i.e., biomass concentration which is readily available, a Kalman filter is designed to reconstruct the nonmeasurable information from the outlet gas and the remaining stoichiometry. Several numerical simulations are presented to assess the controller robustness with respect to model uncertainty. Experimental validation of the proposed GMC strategy is achieved with a lab-scale bioreactor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 3286 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Linking CFD and Kinetic Models in Anaerobic Digestion Using a Compartmental Model Approach

by Yohannis Mitiku Tobo, Jan Bartacek and Ingmar Nopens

Processes 2020, 8(6), 703; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8060703 - 17 Jun 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4285

Abstract

Understanding mixing behavior and its impact on conversion processes is essential for the operational stability and conversion efficiency of anaerobic digestion (AD). Mathematical modelling is a powerful tool to achieve this. Direct linkage of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and the kinetic model is, [...] Read more.

Understanding mixing behavior and its impact on conversion processes is essential for the operational stability and conversion efficiency of anaerobic digestion (AD). Mathematical modelling is a powerful tool to achieve this. Direct linkage of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and the kinetic model is, however, computationally expensive, given the stiffness of the kinetic model. Therefore, this paper proposes a compartmental model (CM) approach, which is derived from a converged CFD solution to understand the performance of AD under non-ideal mixing conditions and with spatial variation of substrates, biomass, pH, and specific biogas and methane production. To quantify the effect of non-uniformity on the reactor performance, the CM implements the Anaerobic Digestion Model 1 (ADM1) in each compartment. It is demonstrated that the performance and spatial variation of the biochemical process in a CM are significantly different from a continuously stirred tank reactor (CSTR) assumption. Hence, the assumption of complete mixed conditions needs attention concerning the AD performance prediction and biochemical process non-uniformities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 923 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Classification and Comparison of Dividing Walls for Distillation Columns

by Zewei Chen and Rakesh Agrawal

Processes 2020, 8(6), 699; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8060699 - 16 Jun 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4241

Abstract

A classification method is proposed to classify dividing walls into 5 types. Each type of dividing wall has its unique structural characteristics which impact its total vapor duty, construction complexity and controllability. Based on this classification, a comprehensive guideline to draw optimal dividing [...] Read more.

A classification method is proposed to classify dividing walls into 5 types. Each type of dividing wall has its unique structural characteristics which impact its total vapor duty, construction complexity and controllability. Based on this classification, a comprehensive guideline to draw optimal dividing wall columns for any n-component distillation is provided. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

11 pages, 983 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

New, Aqueous Radical (Co)Polymerization of Olefins at Low Temperature and Pressure

by Devid Hero and Gergely Kali

Processes 2020, 8(6), 688; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8060688 - 12 Jun 2020

Viewed by 3283

Abstract

In this communication, we describe our preliminary results for the development of a new method of ethylene and propene (co)polymerization at low pressure at room temperature, using cyclodextrin-assisted aqueous radical polymerization for the first time. For polypropylene homopolymerization, the cyclodextrin was entirely removed, [...] Read more.

In this communication, we describe our preliminary results for the development of a new method of ethylene and propene (co)polymerization at low pressure at room temperature, using cyclodextrin-assisted aqueous radical polymerization for the first time. For polypropylene homopolymerization, the cyclodextrin was entirely removed, and the partially soluble polymer was characterized. The purification of polyethylene was not complete, since the threaded cyclodextrins remained on the polymer chain, enhancing its solubility and enable to analyze the sample. With this environmentally benign method, polyolefines could be produced, for the first time. The estimated yield was low, and therefore the conditions should be further tuned for industrial application. This straightforward approach could also be applied to synthesize poly(ethylene-co-vinyl acetate) copolymer with an ethylene content of 20 mol% and enhanced yield. Although the procedure in this stage of research has some limitations, the theory behind can later be applied to develop new, energy-efficient, and versatile industrial processes for olefin copolymerizations for a wide range of comonomers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 3150 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Improved Dye Removal Ability of Modified Rice Husk with Effluent from Alkaline Scouring Based on the Circular Economy Concept

by Nina Mladenovic, Petre Makreski, Anita Tarbuk, Katia Grgic, Blazo Boev, Dejan Mirakovski, Emilija Toshikj, Vesna Dimova, Dejan Dimitrovski and Igor Jordanov

Processes 2020, 8(6), 653; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8060653 - 30 May 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4857

Abstract

To improve the ability of the rice husk to purify colored wastewater, effluent from the alkaline scouring of cotton yarn was used immediately after the scouring (without cooling and additionally added chemicals) in order to remove the non-cellulosic silicon-lignin shield from the rice [...] Read more.

To improve the ability of the rice husk to purify colored wastewater, effluent from the alkaline scouring of cotton yarn was used immediately after the scouring (without cooling and additionally added chemicals) in order to remove the non-cellulosic silicon-lignin shield from the rice husk’s surface. This rice husk, with 93.8 mg/g adsorption capacity, behaves similarly as the rice husk treated with an optimized alkaline scouring recipe consisting of 20 g/L NaOH, 2 mL/L Cotoblanc HTD-N and 1 mL/L Kemonecer NI at 70 °C for 30 min with an adsorption capacity of 88.9 mg/g of direct Congo red dye. Treating one form of waste (rice husk) with another (effluent from the alkaline scouring of cellulosic plant fibers), in an effort to produce a material able to purify colored effluent, is an elegant environment-friendly concept based on the circular economy strategy. This will result in a closed-loop energy-efficient process of the pre-treatment of cotton (alkaline scouring), modification of rice husk using effluent from the alkaline scouring, dyeing cotton fabrics and cleaning its colored effluents with modified rice husk without adding chemicals and energy for heating. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 829 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

An Innovative Design of an Integrated MED-TVC and Reverse Osmosis System for Seawater Desalination: Process Explanation and Performance Evaluation

by Omer Mohamed Abubaker Al-hotmani, Mudhar Abdul Alwahab Al-Obaidi, Yakubu Mandafiya John, Raj Patel and Iqbal Mohammed Mujtaba

Processes 2020, 8(5), 607; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8050607 - 20 May 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5167

Abstract

In recent times two or more desalination processes have been combined to form integrated systems that have been widely used to resolve the limitations of individual processes as well as producing high performance systems. In this regard, a simple integrated system of the [...] Read more.

In recent times two or more desalination processes have been combined to form integrated systems that have been widely used to resolve the limitations of individual processes as well as producing high performance systems. In this regard, a simple integrated system of the Multi Effect Distillation (MED)/Thermal Vapour Compression (TVC) and Permeate Reprocessing Reverse Osmosis (PRRO) process was developed by the same authors and confirmed its validity after a comparison study against other developed configurations. However, this design has a considerable amount of retentate flowrate and low productivity. To resolve this issue, two novel designs of MED and double reverse osmosis (RO) processes including Permeate and Retentate Reprocessing designs (PRRP and RRRO) are developed and modelled in this paper. To systematically assess the consistency of the presented designs, the performance indicators of the novel designs are compared against previous simple designs of MED and PRRO processes at a specified set of operating conditions. Results show the superiority of the integrated MED and double permeate reprocessing design. This has specifically achieved both economic and environmental advantages where total productivity is increased by around 9% and total retentate flowrate (disposed to water bodies) is reduced by 5% with a marginally reduced energy consumption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 3222 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Effect of Superimposed Vibrations on Droplet Oscillation Modes in Prilling Process

by Ivan Pavlenko, Vsevolod Sklabinskyi, Ján Piteľ, Kamil Židek, Ivan Kuric, Vitalii Ivanov, Maksym Skydanenko and Oleksandr Liaposhchenko

Processes 2020, 8(5), 566; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8050566 - 11 May 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2947

Abstract

This article was aimed to solve an urgent problem of ensuring quality for prilling processes in vibrational prilling equipment. During the research, the need for the application of vibrational prilling to create a controlled impact on the process of jet decay on droplets [...] Read more.

This article was aimed to solve an urgent problem of ensuring quality for prilling processes in vibrational prilling equipment. During the research, the need for the application of vibrational prilling to create a controlled impact on the process of jet decay on droplets with the proper characteristics was substantiated. Based on the experimental and theoretical studies of the process of decay of a liquid jet into drops, axisymmetric droplet oscillation modes for the different frequencies were observed. Frequency ranges of transition between modes of decay of a jet into drops were obtained. As a result, the mathematical model of the droplet deformation was refined. The experimental research data substantiated this model, and its implementation allowed determining the analytical dependencies for the components of the droplet deformation velocity. The proposed model explains the existence of different droplet oscillation modes depending on the frequency characteristics of the superimposed vibrational impact. Based on an analytical study of the droplet deformation velocity components, the limit values of the characteristics defining the transition between the different droplet oscillation modes were discovered. Analytical dependencies were also obtained to determine the diameter of the satellites and their total number. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Redesign Processes in the Age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editor

Special Issue Information

Benefits of Publishing in a Special Issue

Published Papers (67 papers)

Research

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI